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Ube  IRural  Scjence  Series 

Edited  by  L.  H.  BAILEY 


BEEKEEPING 


Ei)e  Eural  Science  Series 

Edited  by  L.  H.  Bailey 

The  Soil.     King. 

The  Spraying  of  Plants.     Lodeman. 

Milk  AND  ITS  Products.    Wing.   Enlarged  and  Bevised. 

The  Fertility  of  the  Land.     Boherts. 

The     Principles    of    Fruit-growing.     Bailey.     fSOth 

Edition.,  Bevised. 
Bush-fruits.     Card. 
Fertilizers.     Voorhees. 
The  Principles  OF  Agriculture.  Bailey.  15th  Edition, 

Bevised. 
Irrigation  and  Drainage.     King. 
The  Farmstead.     Boherts. 
Rural  Wealth  and  Welfare.     FaircMld. 
The  Principles  of  Vegetable-gardening.   Bailey. 
Farm  Poultry.    Watso.n.    Enlarged  and  Bevised. 
The  Feeding  of  Animals.     Jordan. 
The  Farmer's  Business  Handbook.     Boherts. 
The  Diseases  of  Animals.     Mayo. 
The  Horse.     Boherts. 
How  TO  Choose  a  Farm.     Hunt. 
Forage  Crops.     Voorhees. 

Bacteria  in  Relation  to  Country  Life.     Lipman. 
Thbt  Nursery-book.     Bailey. 
Plant-breeding.     Bailey  and  Gilbert.     Bevised. 
The  Forcing-book,     Bailey. 
The  Pruning-book.     Bailey. 

Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions.  Paddock  and  Whipple. 
Rural  Hygiene.     Ogden. 
Dry-farming.     Widtsoe. 
Law  for  the  American  Farmer.     Green. 
Farm  Boys  and  Girls.    McKeever. 
The  Training  and  Breaking  of  Horses.    Harper. 
Sheep-farming  in  North  America.     Craig. 
Cooperation  in  Agriculture.     Powell. 
The  Farm  Woodlot.     Cheyney  and  Wentling. 
Household  Insects.     Herrick. 
Citrus  Fruits.     Coit. 
Principles  of  Rural  Credits.     Morman. 
Beekeeping.     Phillips. 


I 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/beekeepingdiscusOOphilrich 


BEEKEEPING 


A  DISCUSSION  OF  THE  LIFE  OF  THE  HONEYBEE 

AND  OF  THE  PRODUCTION 

OF  HONEY 


BY 


EVERETT   FRANKLIN   PHILLIPS,  Ph.D. 

IN   CHARGE    OF    BEE    CULTURE    INVESTIGATIONS,    BUREAU 
OF    ENTOMOLOGY,    UNITED    STATES    DEPART- 
MENT  OF   AGRICULTURE 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

LONDON:  MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Ltd. 

1920 

All  rights  reserved 


Copyright,  1915, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  August,  1915. 


J.  8.  Cashing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Sm>kth  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


M.  H.  a.  p. 


PREFACE 

The  present  book  is  the  result  of  an  effort  to  present  a 
logical  discussion  of  the  various  phases  of  the  complex  sub- 
ject of  beekeeping.  It  was  not  planned  as  a  book  of  rules 
to  which  one  may  go  for  directions  for  each  day's  work,  for 
beekeeping  cannot  be  treated  correctly  in  such  a  way.  The 
activities  of  bees  vary  during  the  seasons  and  no  two  localities 
present  to  the  bees  and  their  owners  exactly  the  same  environ- 
mental conditions,  so  that  the  successful  beekeeper  is  one  who 
has  a  knowledge  of  the  activities  of  bees,  whereby  he  can  in- 
terpret what  he  sees  in  the  hives  from  day  to  day,  and  who 
can  mold  the  instincts  of  the  bees  to  his  convenience  and  profit. 

It  has  seemed  desirable  in  the  early  chapters  to  discuss  bees 
as  they  exist  without  man's  interference,  thus  giving  the  foun- 
dation on  which  the  practice  of  beekeeping  rests.  The  bee- 
keeper is  not  especially  interested  in  the  anatomy  of  the  bee 
and,  while  it  is  necessary  to  use  illustrations  of  various  organs 
and  to  describe  them  briefly,  an  effort  has  been  made  to  treat 
the  bee  as  a  living  animal  and  to  have  the  discussion  deal  with 
physiology  and  especially  with  activities,  in  so  far  as  investi- 
gations have  thrown  light  on  these  processes.  In  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  chapters  devoted  to  the  management  of  the  apiary, 
an  effort  has  been  made  to  present  the  various  systems  of 
manipulations  in  such  a  way  that  the  underlying  principles 
shall  be  evident,  rather  than  to  attempt  to  describe  each  sys- 
tem as  if  it  were  separate. 

The  author  has  been  helped  by  the  facilities  of  the  office  of 
the  Bureau  of  Entomology  with  which  he  is  connected  and  is 


viii  Preface 

under  obligations  to  Dr.  Jas.  A.  Nelson  and  George  S.  Demuth 
for  friendly  advice  and  assistance.  To  F.  V.  Coville,  of  the 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  thanks  are  due  for  assistance  on 
the  chapter  on  the  sources  of  honey  and  to  Dr.  C.  C.  Miller  for 
counsel  on  spring  management  and  comb  honey,  on  which  sub- 
jects he  is  the  highest  authority.  Especially  to  his  wife,  the 
author  would  express  his  gratitude  for  most  valuable  help. 

The  illustrations  with  a  few  exceptions  were  either  drawn 
for  this  book  from  material  gathered  from  many  sources  or 
have  been  borrowed  from  publications  prepared  in  the  office 
of  bee  culture  investigations  of  the  Bureau  of  Entomology. 
The  new  drawings  are  by  J.  E.  Strauss.  A  few  illustrations 
copied  directly  from  other  sources  are  credited  individually. 

In  presenting  a  book  to  American  beekeepers,  the  author 

would  express  the  hope  that  it  may  be  as  helpful  to  them  as 

the  cordial  assistance  and  cooperation  of  many  of  them  have 

been  to  him  in  his  work. 

E.   F.   PHILLIPS. 

Washington,  D.C, 
March,  1916. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 
BEEKEEPING  AS  AN  OCCUPATION 

PAOKS 

Two  classes  of  beekeepers  —  Extent  of  beekeeping  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada  —  The  relation  of  apparatus  to 
the  development  of  beekeeping  —  Who  should  be  a  bee- 
keeper ?  —  Beekeeping  for  women  —  Advantages  in  exten- 
sive beekeeping  —  Where  bees  may  be  kept  —  Results  to 
be  expected 1-21 

CHAPTER  n 

APPARATUS 

Relative  importance  of  equipment  and  skill  —  Apiary- 
house —  Hive  stands  —  Hives  and  hive  parts  —  Equipment 
for  handling  bees  —  Other  equipment 22-33 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  COLONY  AND  ITS  ORGANIZATION 

The  point  of  view  —  Danger  from  poor  work  —  Advan- 
tage of  experience  in  behavior  investigation  —  Zoological 
position  of  the  honeybee  —  Bees  not  domestic  animals  — 
Necessity  of  colonial  life  —  Size  of  the  colony  —  Types  of 
individuals  in  a  colony  —  Queen  —  Workers  —  Drones  — 
Brood  —  Natural  nest  —  Contents  of  the  cells  —  Arrange- 
ment of  the  nest  —  Color  of  the  combs  —  Protection  of  the 
nest — Comparison  with  stingless  bees         ....        34-63 


Contents 

CHAPTER  IV 

THE   CYCLE  OF  THE   YEAR 

Brood-rearing  —  Brood-rearing  during  the  season  —  Tem- 
perature of  the  hive  —  Swarming  —  Preparation  for  swarm- 
ing —  Issuing  of  the  swarm  —  Stimulus  to  leave  the  hive  — 
Behavior  of  issuing  swarm  —  Clustering  —  Supposed  aids  to 
clustering  —  Scouts  —  Entering  the  new  home  —  Parent  col- 
ony —  Mating  flight  —  After-swarms  —  Activity  of  swarms 

—  Swarming  conditions  induced  artificially  —  Peculiarities 
of  bees  in  swarming — Causes  of  swarming  —  Swarming- 
out  —  Gathering  of  nectar  and  storing  of  honey  —  Collec- 
tion of  other  materials  —  Killing  of  the  drones  —  End  of 
brood-rearing  —  Winter  cluster  —  Movements  in  winter  — 
Responses  to  outside  temperature  —  Conservation  of  heat 

—  Source  of  heat — Effect  of  accumulation  of  feces     .        .        54-92 

CHAPTER  V 

THE   LIFE   OF  THE   INDIVIDUAL  IN  RELATION 
TO   THE   COLONY 

Developmental  stages  —  Cellular  structure  of  tissues  — 
Egg  —  Early  embryonic  develppment  —  Later  embryonic 
development  —  Segmentation  —  Fate  of  parts  of  the  embryo 
— Larval  development — Metamorphosis  —  Length  of  devel- 
opmental stages  —  Cycle  of  duties  of  the  adult  worker  bee 

—  Division  of  labor  —  The  labor  within  the  hive  —  Comb 
building  —  Feeding  of  larvae  —  Composition  of  larval  food 

—  Feeding  of  queen  and  drones  —  Other  inside  work  —  The 
guarding  of  the  colony — The  labor  outside  the  hive  — Divi- 
sion of  labor  in  gathering — Pollen  gathering  —  Propolis  col- 
lection —  The  collection  of  water  —  Duration  of  life  —  Work 
determines  length  of  life  —  Practical  applications  —  Possible 
determining  factors 93-131 

CHAPTER   VI 

THE  LIFE   PROCESSES   OF  THE  INDIVIDUAL 

General  plan  of  the  body  of  the  bee  —  Head  —  Thorax  — 
Abdomen  —  Digestion  —  Circulation  —  Metabolism  —  Res- 
piration —  Excretion  —  Locomotion  —  Protective  apparatus    132-161 


Contents  xi 

CHAPTER  VII 
THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  THE   SENSES 

PAGES 

Nervous  system  —  Sense  organs  —  Sight  —  Smell  —  An- 
tennal  sense  organs  —  Taste  —  Touch  —  Hearing  —  Temper- 
ature sense  —  Finding  of  the  flowers  —  Finding  of  the  hive 

—  Memory  —  Nature  of  bee  activities 162-180 

CHAPTER   VIII 

THE   REPRODUCTIVE  PROCESSES  AND  PAR- 
THENOGENESIS 

Origin  of  the  eggs  —  Origin  of  the  male  sex  cells  —  Par- 
thenogenesis—  Sex  determination  —  Practical  applications 

—  Hermaphrodite  bees  —  Eggs  which  fail  to  hatch      .        .     181-191 

CHAPTER  IX 
RACES   OF  BEES 

Types  of  social  bees  —  Species  of  the  genus  Apis — Vari- 
eties of  the  species  mellifica  —  Egyptian  —  Syrian  —  Cyprian 

—  Grecian  —  Caucasian  —  Italian  —  German —  Carniolan  — 
African  races  —  Asiatic  races  —  Chinese-Japanese  —  Best 

race  of  bees 192-204 

CHAPTER  X 

REGIONAL  DIFFERENCES   WITHIN  THE 
UNITED   STATES 

Variation  in  intensity  of  honey-flows  —  Variation  in  the 
value  of  plants  —  Beekeeping  regions  —  General  regions  — 
The  white  clover  'region  —  The  alfalfa  region  —  The  south- 
eastern region  —  The  semi-arid  region  of  the  southwest  — 
The  sage  region  —  Restricted  regions  —  Buckwheat  —  Su- 
mac —  Spanish  needle  —  Willo wherb  —  Sweet  clover  —  Blue 
thistle  —  Raspberry  —  Beans  —  Heartsease  —  Variation 
within  a  region  —  Distribution  of  bees  in  the  United  States 

—  Migratory  beekeeping  —  Overstocking  —  Dadant  out- 
apiaries         206-221 


xii'  Contents 

CHAPTER  XI 
THE   FIRST  STEPS   IN  BEEKEEPING 

PAOSS 

Purchase  of  colonies  —  Purchase  of  bees  to  be  shipped 
from  a  distance  —  Requirements  in  purchased  colonies  — 
How  to  learn  beekeeping  —  Value  of  reading — Merits  of 
beekeeping  courses  —  Beginner's  outfit        ....    222-227 

CHAPTER  XII 

THE  APIARY   SITE 

Apiary  grounds  —  Exposure  to  the  sun  —  Care  of  the  api- 
ary grounds  —  Arrangement  of  hives  —  Number  of  colonies 
in  one  apiary  —  Out-apiaries  —  Conveniences  less  essential 
in  out-apiaries 228-233 

CHAPTER   XIII 

THE   MANIPULATION   OF  BEES 

Disturbance  to  be  reduced  to  a  minimum — Equipment 
for  manipulation  —  When  to  handle  bees  —  Opening  a  hive 

—  Remedies  for  stings  —  Removing  frames  —  Handling 
frames  —  Desirability  of  straight  combs  in  manipulations  — 
Closing  the  hive  —  Occasional  manipulations  —  Feeding  — 
What  to  feed  —  Feeders — Uniting  —  Influence  of  hive  odor 

—  Learning  the  new  location  —  Transferring  —  The  best 
time  to  transfer  colonies  —  Methods  —  Transferring  from 
walls  of  houses  —  Transferring  from  hollow  trees  —  Prevent- 
ing robbing  in  the  apiary  —  Moving  bees  —  Elimination  of 
non-essential  manipulations  —  Two  essentials  —  Increase  in 
efficiency  through  system 234-254 

CHAPTER  XIV 
SPRING  MANAGEMENT 

Object  of  spring  manipulations  —  Prevention  of  drifting 

—  Spring  protection — First  examinations — Cleaning  the 
hives  —  Equalizing  the  colonies — Clipping  queens  —  Sum- 
mary of  favorable  spring  conditions  —  Questionable  manipu- 
latiqns  —  Stimulative  feeding  —  Spreading  the  brood  — 
Substitutes  for  pollen 256-264 


Contents 


xui 


CHAPTER  XV 

SWARM   CONTROL  AND   INCREASE 

Loss  from  division  of  the  working  force  —  Variation  in 
swarming  —  Variation  in  colonies  in  respect  to  swarming 
preparations  —  Direction  of  the  beekeeper's  efforts  —  Pre- 
ventive measures  —  Breeding  —  Mechanical  devices  —  Pre- 
ventive manipulations  —  Miller's  methods  —  Remedial  meas- 
ures —  Control    of    natural    swarms  —  Automatic    hivers 

—  Location  for  the  swarm  —  Disposition  of  the  brood  after 
swarming  —  What  to  use  in  the  brood  chamber  in  hiving 
swarms  —  Remedial  manipulations  —  Unbalanced  condition 
of  swarming  colonies  —  Break  in  the  emergence  of  brood  — 
Requeening  combined  with  dequeening  —  Removal  of  brood 

—  Mechanical  appliances  —  Increase    .        ..        .... 


265-286 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE   PRODUCTION  OF   EXTRACTED-HONEY 

Increase  in  the  production  of  extracted-honey  —  Advan- 
tages of  extracted-honey — Disadvantages  of  extracted-honey 

—  Extracted-honey  hives  —  Choice  of  storage  combs — Use 
of  extracting  combs  smaller  than  brood  combs — Number 
of  supers  —  Manipulation  of  supers  —  Need  of  abundance  of 
drawn  combs  —  System  in  producing  extracted-honey —  Re- 
moving honey  from  the  bees  —  House  for  extracting  — 
Portable  extracting  outfits  —  Uncapping  —  Cans  for  cappings 

—  Capping  melters  —  Types  of  extractors  —  Extracting  — 
Straining  the  honey  —  Storage  tanks  —  Reduction  of  the 
lifting  of  honey  —  Returning  combs  to  the  hives . 


286-300 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE  PRODUCTION  OF   COMB-HONEY 

Purity  of  comb-honey — The   "Wiley  lie"  —  Decrease 
in  comb-honey  production  —  Demand  for  fancy  comb-honey 

—  Advantages  of  comb-honey  —  Disadvantages  of  comb- 
honey  —  Restrictions  in  comb-honey  production  —  Honey- 
house  —  The  best  hive  for  comb-honey  —  The  early  devel- 
opment of  the  section  — Types  of  sections  —  Types  of  supers 

—  Other  equipment  —  Preparation  of  the  sections  —  Manip- 


XIV 


Contents 


ulation  of  the  bees  —  Keeping  bees  in  proper  condition  — 
Manipulation  of  supers  —  Removal  of  supers  —  Caring  for 
the  crop  —  Preparation  of  bait  sections  —  Storage  in  supers 
—  Bulk  comb-honey  —  Bulk  comb-honey  for  home  use  — 
Cut  comb-honey  for  market  ...... 


301-^19 


CHAPTER   XVIII 
MARKETING  THE    HONEY   CROP 

Preparation  of  extracted-honey  for  market  —  Wholesale 
packages  —  Retail  packages  for  local  markets  —  High-class 
retail  packages  —  Blending  —  Argument  for  blending  — 
Heating  honey  —  Preparation  of  comb-honey  for  market  — 
Cleaning  the  sections  of  propolis  —  Grading  —  Shipping 
cases  —  Glazed  sections  —  Use  of  cartons  —  Shipping  comb- 
honey  —  Preparation  of  bulk  comb-honey  for  market  —  Prep- 
aration of  granulated  honey  for  market  —  Wording  of  labels 
—  Development  of  the  home  market  —  Co-operative  selling 


320-333 


CHAPTER  XIX 

THE  PRODUCTION  AND   CARE   OF  BEESWAX 

Rendering  the  wax  —  Wax  presses  —  The  residue  —  Re- 
moving wax  by  dissolving  —  Cleaning  wax — Granulation 
of  wax  —  Bleaching  wax  —  Adulteration  of  wax  —  Prepara- 
tion of  wax  for  market  —  Special  production  of  wax — Uses 
of  beeswax 


334-342 


CHAPTER  XX 
THE   CARE   OF   BEES   JN   WINTER 

Losses  in  winter  —  Object  of  winter  protection  —  Require- 
ments of  successful  wintering  —  Winter  stores  —  Cause  and 
effects  of  humidity  in  the  hive  —  Effects  of  ventilation  — 
Source  of  heat  and  effects  of  changes  of  temperature  —  Dis- 
turbance—  Methods  of  wintering  bees  —  Outdoor  wintering 
—  Cellar  wintering  —  Effects  of  confinement  —  Spring  dwin- 
dling      


343-358 


Contents  xv 

CHAPTER  XXI 
THE   SOURCES   OF  NECTAR   AND  POLLEN 

PAGES 

Reasons  for  knowledge  of  nectar  sources  —  Difficulties  of 
identification  —  Study  of  neighboring  locations  —  Function 
of  nectar — Variations  in  nectar  —  Variations  in  secretion 
— Effects  of  climatic  conditions  on  secretion — Advantages 
of  swamp  sources  —  Cultivation  of  plants  for  nectar  —  Value 
of  the  minor  sources  —  Gathering  of  pollen  —  Value  of  bees 
in  cross-pollination  —  Damaging  effects  of  incorrect  spray- 
ing —  Bees  do  not  puncture  ripe  fruit  —  Supposedly  poison- 
ous honeys  —  Plant  honey-dews  —  Insect  honey-dew  — 
Annotated  list  of  honey-plants 369-396 

CHAPTER  XXII 
BEE   DISEASES  AND  ENEMIES 

Brood  diseases  —  American  foul  brood  —  European  foul 
brood  —  Sacbrood  or  pickled  brood  —  Methods  of  spread  — 
Treatment  —  Shaking  treatment  —  Fall  treatment  —  Addi- 
tional treatment  for  European  foul  brood  —  Diseases  of 
adult  bees  —  Dysentery  —  Nosema  disease  —  Paralysis  — 
Spring  dwindling  —  Enemies  of  bees  —  The  wax-moth  ( Gal- 
leria  mellonella)  —  The  lesser  wax-moth  (Achroia  grissella) 

—  Remedies  —  Other  enemies 397-416 

CHAPTER  XXIII 

THE   REARING  OF   QUEENS 

Commercial  queen-rearing  —  Systematic  requeening  — 
Conditions  under  which  queens  are  reared  —  Saving  natural 
queen  cells  —  Having  natural  cells  built  —  Miller  method 

—  Alley  method  —  Hopkins  method  —  Queen  cells  on 
artificial  bases  —  Transferring  larvae  —  Swarm  box  — 
Having  cells  built  out  —  Nursery  cages  —  Mating  hives  — 
Classification  of  queens  —  Mailing  cages  —  Introducing 
queens  —  Improvement  of  stock  —  Study  of  breeding  needed 

—  Selection  of  drones  —  Desirability  of  pure  races  — 
Danger  from  inbreeding 417-429 


xvi  Contents 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
MISCELLANEOUS   INFORMATION 


PAGKS 


Literature  on  bees  and  beekeeping  —  Organizations  of 
beekeepers — Laws  —  Supplies  for  beekeepers  —  The  uses  of 
honey — Honey  crop  reports  —  Educational  work  in  bee- 
keeping— The  Bureau  of  Entomology 430-437 


APPENDIX 
Explanation  of  Symbols  used  in  Anatomical  Illustrations    439-448 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

Note.  — Illustrations  marked  by  asterisk  are  from  Farmers'  Bulletins 
Nos.  442  and  447  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  Other  illustra- 
tions are  credited  by  authors  individually. 

Apiary  of  the  Bureau  of  Entomology,  Drummond,  Md.    .      Frontispiece 

FIG.  PAGE 

1.  A  primitive  box-hive 1 

2.  A  bee  and  apple  blossoms 6 

3.  Mud  hives  in  Palestine.     (From  photograph  by  Metcalf)  .        .  •     5 

4.  Group  of  Caucasian  hives 6 

5.  An  old  Greek  hive.     (From  Wheler,  1682)         ....  6 

6.  Gravenhorst  hive,  a  combination  of  skep  and  frame-hive   .        .  7 

7.  German  hive,  opening  at  the  rear        ......  7 

8.  Bee-house  in  Carniola,  Austria 8 

9.  Carniolan  hive 9 

10.  Bee-house  mentioned  in  "  The  Hoosier  School  Boy  "         .        .  9 

11.  W.  B.  C.  hive  of  England   .        . 10 

12.  C.  D.  B.  hive  of  Ireland 11 

13.  Frame  of  C.  D.  B.  hive        .        .        .        .         .        .        .        .11 

14.  A  woman  beekeeper    .         .        . 16 

15.  Roof  apiaiy  in  lower  New  York  City.     (Drawn  from  photograph 

by  Root) 18 

16.  Apiary  on  shed  roof,  to  economize  space 19 

17.  Tropical  apiary,  San  Sabastian,  Porto  Rico        ....  19 

18.  Honey-house  door 24 

19.  Porter  bee  escape  * 24 

20.  Ten-frame  Langstroth  hive  with  queen  excluder,  comb-honey 

super  and  telescope  cover  * 26 

21.  Diagram  showing  spacing  of  frame  and  rabbet  in  Langstroth  hive  27 

22.  Spacing  of  Hoffman  frames 28 

23.  Spur  wire-imbedder*  .        . 29 

24.  Smoker* 29 

25.  German  beekeeper's  pipe 30 

26.  Cotton  netting  veil  with  silk  tulle  front  * 31 

27.  Hive  tools* 31 

28.  German  bee  brush  *     .        .        . 31 

-  '  xvii 


xviii  Illustrations 

FIG.  PA6S 

29.  Tool-box  seat 82 

30.  Alley  queen  and  drone  trap  *....,..      32 

31.  Bee  escape  board  * 32 

32.  Comb-foundation  cutter       , 33 

33.  Van  Deusen  hive  clamp 83 

34.  The  honeybee  :  worker,  queen  and  drone  *         ....      40 

35.  The  honeybee  :  egg,  young  larva,  old  larva  and  pupa  *       .        .      40 

36.  Structure  of  comb  * 47 

37.  Piece  of  new  comb  showing  transition  cells  *       ....      48 

38.  Queen  cell 49 

39.  Cappings  of  brood 50 

40.  Capping  of  honey Facing  page  51 

41.  Colony  in  the  open  air Facing  page  51 

42.  Eggs  in  cells  of  the  comb Facing  page  55 

43.  Larvae  in  cells  of  the  comb,  almost  full  grown     .        .  Facing  page  56 

44.  Concentric  arrangement  of  the  brood  ......       67 

45.  Group  of  queen  cells  * 62 

46.  A  swarm  cluster Facing  page  65 

47.  Swarm  catcher Facing  page  67 

48.  Capturing  a  swarm      . Facing  page  65 

49.  Swarm  entering  a  hive Facing  page  68 

50.  Group  of  tissue  cells  from  skin  of  young  salamander.     (From 

Nelson) 95 

61.  Three  stages  in  the  development  of  the  embryo.    (From  Nelson)       97 

62.  Diagram  of  a  longitudinal  median  section  of  a  bee  larva.     (From 

Nelson) 100 

53.    Ventral  plates  of  the  abdomen  of  a  worker  bee.     (From  Casteel)     108 
64.   Inner  surface  of  the  left  hind  leg  of  a  worker  bee  showing  a  wax- 
scale.     (From  Casteel) 108 

55.  Ventral  view  of  worker  removing  wax-scale.     (From  Casteel)  .     109 

56.  Side  view  of  worker  removing  wax-scale.     (From  Casteel  )       .     109 

57.  Ventral  view  of  worker  passing  wax-scale  forward.     (From 

Casteel) 110 

58.  Side  view  of  worker  passing  wax-scale  forward.    (From  Casteel).    110 

59.  Median  longitudinal  section  of  head  of  worker,  showing  the 

glands.     (From  Snodgrass) Ill 

60.  Alimentary  canal  of  worker,  showing  glands.     (From  Snod- 

grass)     112 

61.  Longitudinal  median  section  of  base  of  oesophagus.      (From 

Snodgrass) 118 


Illustrations     ^  xix 

Fia.  PAGE 

62.  Lizard  encased  in  propolis 117 

63.  Outer  surface  of  the  left  hind  leg  of  a  worker.      (From  Casteel)  124 

64.  Flying  bee,  showing  movements  of  legs  in  pollen  collecting. 

(From  Casteel) 124 

65.  Flying    bee    patting  pollen    on    the    pollen   basket.      (From 

Casteel) 124 

66.  Inner  surface  of  the  left  hind  leg  of  worker.     (From  Casteel)    .  125 

67.  Flying  bee  loading  the  pollen  baskets.     (From  Casteel)     .         .  126 

68.  Front  and  back  views  of  head  of  worker  bee.      (From  Snod- 

grass) 134 

69.  Anterior  views  of  head  of  worker,  queen  and  drone.     (From 

Snodgrass) 135 

70.  Right  mandibles  of  worker  and  drone.     (From  Snodgrass)        .  136 

71.  Internal  mandibular  gland  of  worker.     (From  Snodgrass)         .  136 

72.  Mouth  parts  of  the  worker.     (From  Snodgrass)          .         .         .  137 

73.  Dorsal  view  of  ventral  wall  and  internal  skeleton  of  worker. 

(From  Snodgrass) 139 

74.  Thorax  of  worker.     (From  Snodgrass)       .        .        .        .  *       .  140 

75.  Lateral  view  of  abdomen  of  worker.     (From  Snodgrass)    .         .  140 

76.  Tip  of  abdomen  of  worker  with  left  side  removed.     (From 

Snodgrass) 141 

77.  Histological  details  of  alimentary  canal.     (From  Snodgrass)  •    .  145 

78.  Longitudinal  median  vertical  section  of  body  of  worker.     (From 

Snodgrass) 149 

79.  Tracheal  system  of  worker-     (From  Snodgrass)         .        .  ~      .  152 

80.  Fore  and  hind  wings.     (From  Snodgrass) 155 

81.  Legs  of  worker,  queen  and  drone.     (From  Snodgrass)        .         .  156 

82.  Claws.     (From  Snodgrass) 157 

83.  Ventral  view  of  sting  of  worker  and  accessory  parts.     (From 

Snodgrass) 159 

84.  Nervous  system  of  worker.     (From  Snodgrass)  ....  168 

85.  Brain  and  subcesophageal  ganglion  of  worker.      (From  Snod- 

grass)      164 

86.  Section  of  compound  eye  and  optic  lobe 166 

87.  Section  of  entire  ommatidium 167 

88.  Location  of  groups  of  olfactory  pores  —  dorsal  view.     (From 

Mclndoo) 170 

89.  Location  of  groups  of  olfactory  pores  —  ventral  view.     (From 

Mclndoo) ...  171 

90.  Cross-section  of  typical  olfactory  pore.     (From  Mclndoo)  .        .  172 


XX  Illustrations 

FIG.  P^GE 

91.  Antennal  organs.     (Copied  from  Mclndoo,  after  Schenk)         .  173 

92.  Reproductive  organs,  sting  and  poison  glands  of  queen.     (From 

Snodgrass) 182 

93.  Reproductive  organs  of  drone.     (From  Snodgrass)   .        .         .  185 

94.  Propolis  at  entrance,  built  by  Caucasian  bees    ....  197 

95.  Map  of  Florida  showing  distribution  of  honey  plants.    (From 

Baldwin) 210 

96.  Map  of  United  States,  showing  distribution  of  colonies  of  bees 

(Redrawn  from  map  furnished  by  Bureau  of  Crop  Esti- 
mates, U.  S.  D.  A.) 214 

97.  Map  showing  distribution  of  Dadant  apiaries.     (Redrawn  from 

Dadant) 220 

98.  Apiary  in  the  West,  shaded  by  thatched  shed.     (Redrawn  from 

Root) 230 

99.  Former  apiary  of  the  Bureau  of  Entomology,  College  Park,  Md.*  231 

100.  Hive-body  resting  on  cover 236 

101.  Handling  a  frame,  first  position* 238 

102.  Handling  a  frame,  second  position  * 238 

103.  Handling  a  frame,  third  position* 238 

104.  Hive  leveling  device 239 

105.  Division  board  (Doolittle)  feeder  * .242 

106.  Alexander  feeder  in  collar  under  hive-body  *    .        .        .        .  242 

107.  "  Pepper-box "  feeder  * 242 

108.  Pan  in  super  arranged  for  feeding*            .....  242 

109.  Cutting  combs  from  a  box-hive 246 

110.  Hive  ready  for  moving 250 

111.  Manipulation  to  reduce  population  of  parent  colony  —  first  posi- 

tion.    (From  Demuth) 275 

112.  Manipulation  to  reduce  population  of  parent  colony  —  second 

position.     (From  Demuth) 275 

113.  Manipulation  to  reduce   population  of  parent  colony  — third 

position.     (From  Denmth) 276 

114.  Manipulation  to  reduce  population  of  parent  colony  —  fourth 

position.     (From  Demuth) 276 

115.  Queen  excluder  ("honey  board")    ......  277 

116.  Uncapping  knives  * 293 

117.  Steam-heated  uncapping  knife 294 

118.  Comb  for  uncapping  —  used  in  Europe 294 

119.  Capping  melter 295 

120.  Tank  to  receive  cappings .  295 


Illustrations                           •  xxi 

FIO.  PAGS 

121.  Extractor  with  stationary  can  * 296 

122.  Power  extracting  outfit.     (Photo  by  Root)       .         Facing  page  297 

123.  Honey  strainer.     (Redrawn  from  Root)    .         .         >        .         .  298 

124.  Honey  storage  tanks.     (Drawn  from  photograph  by  Root)       .  299 
126.   Diagram  to  show  method  of  spacing  bee-way  sections.    (From 

Demuth) 308 

126.  Diagram  to  show  metliod  of  spacing  plain  sections.     (From 

Demuth) 308 

127.  Comparison  of  plain  and  bee-way  sections.     (From  Demuth)  .  308 

128.  Comparison  of  tall  and  square  sections  of  equal  capacity.    ( From 

Demuth) 309 

129.  T-super.     (From  Demuth) 309 

130.  Super  for  square  bee- way  sections  with  section  holders.     (From 

Demuth) 309 

131.  Super  for  square  plain  sections  with  section  holders.     (From 

Demuth) *     .        .         .310 

132.  Super  for  tall  plain  sections.     (From  Demuth)          .        ...  310 

133.  Super  for  tall  plain  sections  in  wide  frames.      (From  Demuth)  310 

134.  Old  type  of  wide  frame  for  holding  sections.     (Drawn  from 

Miller) 311 

135.  Section  folder 312 

136.  Diagram  showing  the  arrangement    of    the  supers.     (From 

Demuth) 315 

137.  Crate  holding  two  5-gallon  honey  cans 321 

138.  Shipping  cases  for  comb-honey  *.,....  328 

139.  Double  boiler  for  melting  combs 335 

140.  Hot  water  (Hershiser)  wax  press 336 

141.  Diagram  showing  the  response  of  a  colony  of  bees  to  changes 

in  outer  temperature.     (From  Phillips  and  Demuth)  .        .  348 

142.  An  apiary  in  winter 350 

143.  Roof  of  a  bee-cellar  away  from  a  house 353 

144.  Arrangement  of  hives  in  a  cellar.      (Drawn  from  Alexander)  354 

145.  Diagram  showing  the  effects  of  an  accumulation  of  feces.    (From 

Phillips  and  Demuth) 357 

146.  Alfalfa 373 

147.  Basswood 376 

148.  Buckwheat 377 

149.  Spider  flower  (Cleome) 378 

160.  Cotton 379 

161.  Dandelion 380 


xxii  Illustrations 

JIG.  PAOB 

i52.  Heartsease 382 

153.  Horsemint .  383 

154.  Locust        .         , 384 

155.  Partridge  pea     ,        , ,  387 

156.  Button  sage 389 

157.  White  sage 390 

158.  Sourwood 390 

169.  Sweet  clover 392 

160.  Tulip  poplar 393 

161.  White  clover 394 

162.  Willowherb 395 

163.  American  foul  brood  * 398 

164.  The  ropiness  of  American  foul  brood  * 399 

165.  American  foul  brood  comb  * 399 

166.  Apiary  in  southern  California  which  was  practically  destroyed 

by  disease 400 

167.  European  foul  brood  * 401 

168.  Apparatus  for  the  shaking  treatment  * 405 

169.  Gasoline  torch  *  .         .,       .         .        .         .         .        .        .406 

170.  Wax-moth,  in  natural  position  at  rest       .....  411 

171.  Wax-moth,  male 411 

172.  Wax-moth,  female 412 

173.  Work  of  wax-moth  larvae  on  comb  *  .        ,         Facing  page  412 

174.  Larva  of  wax-moth .  412 

175.  Eggs  of  wax-moth  laid  on  top-bar  of  frame       ....  412 

176.  Pupa  of  wax-moth 413 

177.  Cocoons  of  wax-moth         ........  413 

178.  Lesser  wax-moth  in  natural  position 414 

179.  Lesser  wax-moth,  male .        .  414 

180.  Lesser  wax-moth,  female 414 

181.  Lesser  wax-moth,  larva 415 

182.  Lesser  wax-moth,  pupa 415 

183.  Hive  stand  to  keep  off  ants 415 

184.  Comb  cut  for  starting  queen  cells  by  the  Alley  method     .        .  420 

185.  Queen  cells  reared  by  the  Hopkins  method        .         .         .        .421 

186.  Swarm  box  for  starting  queen  cells 423 

187.  Pratt  nursery 424 

188.  Queen  mating  hive 424 

189.  "  Baby  nucleus  "  hive  devised  by  Pratt 425 

190.  Queen  mailing  cage  * •         .  426 


I 


BEEKEEPING 


BEEKEEPIJN^a 


CHAPTER  I 


BEEKEEPING  AS  AN  OCCUPATION 


The  keeping  of  bees  for  the  pleasure  derived  from  studying 
them  and  also  for  the  profit  arising  from  their  products  is 
the  vocation  or  avocation 
of  many  thousands  of  peo- 
ple in  all  sections  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada. 
In  former  times,  the  bee- 
hive, or  more  properly  the 
skep,  ''gum"  or  box-hive 
(Fig.  1),  was  found  on  al- 
most every  farm,  in  im- 
portance occupying  a  place 
similar  to  that  which  poul- 
try does  to-day.  Then  as 
now,  beekeeping  was  usu- 
ally not  the  sole  business 
of  those  interested.  The 
number  of  farmer-beekeep- 
ers is  now  being  reduced 
in  most  parts  of  the 
United  States  and  bees  are 
no  longer  quite  so  commonly  seen  in  the  country  as  in 
earlier  days. 

B  1 


Fig.  1.  —  A  primitive  box-hive. 


2  Beekeeping 

Two  classes  of  beekeepers. 

By  one  of  those  curious  shiftings  which  are  so  frequent  in 
human  activities,  beekeeping  is  coming  more  and  more  to 
be  restricted  to  two  rather  distinct  classes  of  beekeepers. 
Of  these  the  more  important  numerically  is  composed  of  the 
so-called  amateur  beekeepers,  who  keep  a  few  colonies  pri- 
marily for  recreation  and  only  incidentally  for  honey  for 
home  use  and  perhaps  a  little  to  sell  locally.  The  amateur 
ranks  are  now  made  up  to  a  large  extent  of  dwellers  in  towns, 
cities  and  suburbs.  The  other  class,  on  which  the  honey- 
consuming  public  must  chiefly  depend,  is  that  of  the  profes- 
sional or  specialist  beekeeper,  whose  chief  if  not  sole  business 
is  honey-production,  and  who  is  often  a  resident  of  a  town  or 
city.  Various  factors,  to  be  discussed  later,  make  it  increas- 
ingly desirable  that  commercial  honey-production  be  carried 
on  by  experts,  by  men  who  are  mentally  equipped  and  trained 
to  get  maximum  results.  While  the  present  tendency  is,  of 
necessity,  toward  the  keeping  of  bees  by  professional  bee- 
keepers, there  will  always  be  thousands  belonging  to  the 
amateur  class,  and  it  is  by  no  means  intended  in  the  present 
discussion  of  the  subject  to  leave  out  of  consideration  the 
enthusiast  who  desires  to  keep  a  few  colonies  for  pleasure. 
It  is  probable  that  the  larger  part  of  our  present  professional 
beekeepers  began  as  amateurs,  rather  than  as  farmer-bee- 
keepers, and,  in  all  likelihood,  the  extensive  producers  of  the 
future  will  be  recruited  from  the  suburbanites  and  nature- 
lovers  who  now  keep  bees  for  the  enjoyment  they  get  from 
them,  with  little  present  thought  of  future  gain. 

This  source  of  future  commercial  beekeepers  seems  all  the 
more  probable  since  it  is  difficult  to  begin  beekeeping  on  a 
large  scale.  The  many  minor  details  which  go  to  make  up 
success  in  getting  maximum  crops  cannot  come  solely  from 
reading  nor  can  the  needed  information  be  bought  with  the 
apiary.  A  small  beginning  is  strongly  to  be  advised  and,  as 
the  novice  grows  in  experience,  the  colonies  may  be  increased 
in  number.  It  is  a  commendable  plan  to  make  the  bees  pay 
for  themselves,  almost  from  the  start,  as  well  as  for  the  addi- 


Beekeeping  as  an  Occupation  3 

tional  apparatus  needed  in  increasing  the  apiary.  This  they 
will  do  in  the  average  locality,  as  well  as  show  some  profit. 
If  the  work  then  proves  congenial,  the  transition  from  ama- 
teur to  professional  is  often  so  gradual  as  scarcely  to  be  recog- 
nized. 

Those  beekeepers  who  are  also  engaged  in  general  farming 
or  who  specialize  in  one  or  two  farm  crops  are  usually  too 
busy  elsewhere  to  give  the  bees  the  necessary  attention  at  the 
time  when  they  most  require  it  and  consequently  few  of  this 
class  of  beekeepers  rise  to  the  ranks  of  the  specialists.  This 
is  not  so  true  of  amateur  beekeepers,  since  some  of  the 
many  occupations  which  they  follow  usually  permit  the 
time  and  study  necessary  to  the  making  of  the  proficient 
beekeeper. 

No  genuine  beekeeper  will  admit  that  any  other  occupation 
is  more  interesting  than  the  care  of  bees.  In  fact,  beekeepers 
are,  in  a  sense,  bound  together  by  a  common  tie  in  their  in- 
terest in  bees,  and  this  sense  of  union  finds  expression  in  their 
conventions,  in  the  fraternal  tone  of  their  articles  in  the 
journals  devoted  to  bee-culture  and  in  their  intimacy  with 
each  other.  This  sympathy  arises  from  the  fact  that  they 
recognize  the  fascination  in  the  study  of  the  bees  and  possess 
in  common  an  absorbing  interest  in  an  insect  which  from  the 
earliest  times  has  aroused  the  curiosity  of  mankind.  For 
the  amateur  beekeeper,  this  study  has  the  marked  advan- 
tage of  being  a  recreation  which  pays  its  own  way  and,  under 
proper  conditions,  produces  no  mean  profit. 

Beekeeping  is  from  its  very  nature  one  of  the  minor 
branches  of  agriculture.  It  is  the  means  of  conserving  for 
human  use  the  nectar  of  the  multitude  of  flowers,  which  is 
usually  so  abundantly  secreted  in  all  sections  of  the  country, 
and  which,  if  not  collected  by  the  bees,  is  immediately  lost. 

The  raw  material  of  honey  costs  the  beekeeper  nothing. 
The  proper  care  of  the  bees  in  order  to  obtain  the  maximum 
crop  and  the  preparation  of  the  product  of  their  labors  for 
market  take  time  and  study,  but  for  these  the  beekeeper  is 
well  repaid  by  the  returns. 


4  Beekeeping 

Extent  of  beekeeping  in  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

It  is  usually  not  realized  that  beekeeping  has  so  many 
followers.  Unfortunately,  no  thoroughly  reliable  data  are 
available  as  to  the  number  of  persons  engaged  in  this  pursuit, 
but  careful  and  seemingly  conservative  estimates  place  the 
number  at  about  800,000  in  the  United  States.  The  average 
number  of  colonies  owned  is  small,  probably  not  more  than 
ten,  so  that  many  of  these  persons  are  interested  to  only  a 
slight  degree.  However,  the  aggregate  crop  is  sufficiently 
great  to  cause  surprise  to  one  unfamiliar  with  the  industry. 
The  value  of  the  average  annual  crop  of  honey  in  the  United 
States  amounts  to  at  least  $20,000,000  while  the  beeswax 
produced  is  valued  at  about  $2,000,000.  It  should  be  em- 
phasized that  these  estimates  are  conservative. 

The  Census  figures  for  Canada  are  seemingly  as  faulty  as 
those  for  the  United  States.  For  example,  the  1911  Census 
shows  124,237  colonies  in  Ontario,  whereas,  according  to 
Morley  Pettit,  provincial  apiarist,  the  number  should  be 
about  300,000.  The  total  value  of  the  honey  and  wax  crop, 
according  to  the  Census  of  1911,  is  given  as  $713,250,  but 
it  is  seemingly  safe  to  state  that  Canada  now  produces  a 
crop  about  one-tenth  that  of  the  United  States.  The  in- 
dustry is  steadily  growing,  especially  in  the  provinces  where 
the  beekeepers  are  helped  by  inspection  and  instruction, 
as  they  are  in  Ontario. 

There  is  unquestionably  great  opportunity  for  the  further 
development  of  the  industry.  Various  writers  have  ven- 
tured estimates  as  to  the  amount  of  nectar  now  out  of  range 
of  sufficient  bees  to  gather  it.  These  guesses  have  varied 
enormously,  some  stating  that  perhaps  half  the  nectar 
secreted  is  wasted,  while  others,  perhaps  nearer  the  truth, 
have  claimed  that  not  more  than  one-twentieth  is  saved. 
In  all  the  country,  there  are  but  few  places  where  too  many 
bees  are  kept  and  it  is  doubtless  conservative  to  venture 
an  estimate  that  ten  times  the  present  honey  crop  could 
be  produced  with  profit. 

There  is  a  fear  commonly  expressed  by  professional  bee- 


Beekeeping  as  an  Occupation 


Fig.  2.  —  A  bee  and  apple  blos- 
soms. Bees  are  valuable  as  agents 
of  cross-pollination. 


keepers  in  their  conven- 
tions and  elsewhere  that 
the  honey  market  will  be 
overstocked  if  any  greater 
crops  are  produced.  This 
fear  is  ungrounded.  A 
few  dealers  are  now  at- 
tempting to  supply  their 
customers  with  honey 
throughout  the  year,  al- 
though usually  the  honey 
crop  is  sold  so  quickly  that 
it  is  found  on  the  market 
only  between  the  time  of 
harvesting  the  crop  and  the 
holiday  season.  It  must 
also  be  remembered  that 
in  many  famiUes  honey 
is    almost    unknown    as    a 

food,  not  because  it  is  not  relished  but  because  the  present 
supply  is  so  limited  that  it  never  comes  to  the  attention 

of  the  housewife. 
Furthermore,  bakers 
and  confectioners  are 
using  an  increasing 
amount  of  honey 
for  manufacturing 
purposes,  especially 
honeys  of  the  darker 
grades.  With  such 
conditions  of  the 
honey  market,  there 
need  be  no  fear  of 
overproduction,  even 
though  the  beekeep- 
ers take  full  advantage  of  the  nectar  supply,  in  so  far  as  it 
is  profitable. 


Fig.  3.  —  Mud  hives  in  Palestine. 


6 


Beekeeping 


In  addition  to  the  value  of  the  honeybee  as  a  honey- 
producer,  it  has  a  value  to  agriculture  which  is  probably  far 

greater.  Peculiarly 
enough,  the  bee- 
keeper is  usually  not 
the  one  who  receives 
the  greatest  profit 
from  the  presence  of 
his  bees  in  the  com- 
munity. The  honey- 
bee is  one  of  the 
most  beneficial  of 
those  insects  which 
carry  pollen  from  one 
flower  to  another. 
Such  cross-pollina- 
tion is  frequently  es- 
sential to  the  pro- 
duction of  fruit  and, 
among  all  the  insects 
which  serve  the  fruit- 
grower, the  honeybee 
occupies  a  unique 
position.  In  the  spring,  the  time  when  their  services  are 
most  needed,  other  insects  are  often  few  in  number  and 
there  is  no  way  of  prop- 
agating them.  In  the 
case  of  the  honeybee, 
however,  it  is  relatively 
easy  to  carry  to  the  or- 
chard thousands  of  in- 
sects, which  are  ready,  in 
favorable  weather,  to  aid 
the  fruit-grower  in  return 
for  the  small  amount  of 
nectar  obtained  (Fig.  2). 
In    many    orchards    the 


Fig.  4.  —  Group  of  Caucasian  hives. 


Fig,  5.  —  An  old  Greek  hive. 


Beekeeping  as  an  Occupation 


Fig.  6.  —  Gravenhorst  hive,  a  combination  of 
skep  and  frame-hive. 


greater  part  of  the 
fruit  set  is  the  result 
of  the  labors  of  the 
honeybee,  and  many 
fruit-growers  are 
taking  up  beekeep- 
ing solely  for  its  use- 
fulness in  this  re- 
gard. It  is  conserva- 
tively estimated 
that  the  honeybee  is 
more  valuable  to 
American  agriculture 
in  its  work  of  cross- 
pollinating  than  it  is 
as  a  honey-producer. 
In  all  *  matters  per- 
taining to  the  advancement  of  the  beekeeping  industry  the 
beekeeper  should  therefore  find  a  warm  ally  in  the  fruit-grower. 

Relation  of  apparatus  to  the  development  of  beekeeping. 

It  may  perhaps  be  considered  as  characteristic  of  human 
endeavor  that  when  a  new  piece  of  apparatus  is  invented 

it  is  first  made  as  com- 
plex as  possible  and,  if  it 
becomes  widely  adopted 
and  is  used  commercially, 
much  of  the  later  develop- 
ment is  in  the  direction  of 
simplification.  This  is  cer- 
tainly true  of  the  appar- 
atus used  by  the  beekeeper, 
and  the  stage  of  the  de- 
velopment of  the  industry 
in  any  country  may  be 
approximately  judged  by  the  complexity  of  the  apparatus 
used. 


German   hive,  opening  at  the 
rear. 


8 


Beekeeping 


The  primitiv^e  method  of  keeping  bees  consisted  simply 
of  giving  them  some  kind  of  cavity  in  which  to  live.  Such 
hives  are  exemplified  in  the  mud  hives  of  the  Palestine 
beekeeper  (Fig.  3),  and  the  straw  skeps  of  the  old-time 
European  beekeeper.  The  interesting  collection  of  hives 
shown  in  Fig.  4  is  drawn  from  a  photograph  sent  the  author 
by  J.  de  Dieterichs,  Nucha,  Caucasus,  Russia,  these  hives 
being  types  used  in  that  country.     To  our  discredit,  it  must 


Fig.  8.  —  Bee-house  in  Carniola,  Austria. 

be  admitted  that  in  parts  of  America  the  box-hive  (Fig.  1) 
or  ''gum"  has  not  been  eliminated.  With  such  crude 
equipment,  beekeeping  as  a  business  is  not  possible. 

With  the  invention  of  the  movable-frame  hive  by  Langs- 
troth,  around  which  so  much  of  this  book  centers,  the  de- 
velopment of  practical  beekeeping  began.  This  type  of 
hive  was  promptly  adopted  by  German  beekeepers,  since 
the  previous  rediscovery  of  the  bar-hive  by  the  great  bee- 
keeper Dzierzon  had  prepared  them  for  it.  The  bar-hive 
had,  however,  been  used  centuries  before  in  Greece  (Fig.  5). 


Beekeeping  as  an  Occupation 


Fig.  9.  —  Carniolan  hive. 


To  utilize  the  principle  of  the  frame-hive  without  departing 
too  radically  from  the  skep,  the  Gravenhorst  hive  (Fig.  6) 
was  adopted  by  many 
Germans.  Its  defi- 
ciencies are  at  once 
obvious  from  the  il- 
lustration. 

With  the  adoption 
of  the  fundamental 
principle  of  the  frame- 
hive,  the  types  of  hive 
developed  along  two 
main  lines.  The 
original  frame-hive  of  the  German  beekeepers,  following 
the  example  of  Dzierzon,  opened  at  the  rear,  and  this 
type  (Fig.  7)  is  still  much  used.  Its  construction  prevents 
adequate  expansion  of  the  brood-chamber  and  of  the  room 
for  surplus,  which  are  of  such  vital  importance  with  modern 
American   manipulations.      Such    hives    are    ill    suited    to 

American  condi- 
tions and  are 
apparently  losing 
ground  abroad. 

In  connection 
with  these  hives 
as  well  as  with 
some  other  local 
types,  the  Ger- 
man, Austrian 
and  Swiss  bee- 
keepers often 
keep  their  bees 
in  elaborately 
ornamented  bee- 
houses  (Fig.  8), 
each  colony  of  course  having  its  own  hive  (Fig.  9).  This 
has   been   tried   to    a    limited    extent    by   American    bee- 


FiG.  10.- 


Bee-house  mentioned  in  "The  Hoosier 
School  Boy." 


io 


Beekeeping 


keepers,  and  bee-houses  may  still  be  seen  in  parts  of  the 
country.  The  accompanying  illustration  (Fig.  10)  is  drawn 
from  a  photograph  by  Geo.  S.  Demuth  of  ^the  bee-house  in 
Eggleston's  ''Hoosier  School  Boy,"  still  standing  near  Madi- 
son, Indiana.  For  a  time  the  author  was  obhged  to  use 
such  a  house,  far  less  elaborate  however  than  those  often 
built  by  the  bee-enthusiasts  of  Europe.  The  house-apiary 
is  cozy  and  for  certain  manipulations,  such  as  queen-rearing, 

is  convenient,  but 
the  extensive  Amer- 
ican  beekeeper 
would  find  it  impos- 
sible to  produce  his 
large  crops  in  such 
quarters.  The 
house-apiary,  as 
usually  constructed, 
like  the  hive  open- 
ing at  the  back, 
limits  the  expansion 
of  the  hive  and  is 
therefore  disadvan- 
tageous. 

The  other  type  of 
hive,  opening  at  the 
top,  has  been  ex- 
tensively adopted  in 
Europe,  as  exemplified  by  the  W.B.C.  hive  (Fig.  11)  of 
England,  the  C.D.B.  hive  (Figs.  12  and  13)  of  Ireland 
and  the  modified  Dadant  hive  so  much  used  on  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe.  It  will  be  seen  from  the  illustrations 
that  these  hives  are  less  simple  than  those  used  in  Amer- 
ica. The  chief  objection,  as  viewed  from  American 
conditions,  is  a  lack  of  room  for  expansion,  although  the 
complexity  of  these  hives  would  seriously  interfere  with  the 
work  of  an  extensive  American  beekeeper  when  in  the  middle 
of  a  heavy  honey-flow.     The  type  of  hive  which  we  may 


Fig.  11.  — W.B.C.  hive  of  England. 


Beekeeping  as  an  Occupation 


11 


properly  call  typically  American  (Fig.  20)  is  a  simple  box, 
with  freely  movable  but  accurately  spaced  frames,  capable 
of  any  amount  of  expan- 
sion. It  is  a  most  efficient 
tool  for  the  beekeeper  and 
as  fine  a  home  for  the  bees 
as  any  hive  ever  made.  It 
is  readily  moved,  easily 
packed  for  the  winter  and 
these  and  other  advantages 
come  chiefly  from  the  se- 
vere simplicity  which  is  de- 
manded by  business  bee- 
keepers. The  American 
beekeeper  has,  therefore,  no 
reason  to  envy  his  co- 
workers abroad  their  elab- 
orate and  often  attractive 
hives. 

This  comparison  of  equip- 
ment serves  to  make  clear 

why  beekeeping  as  a  profitable  business  is  possible  in  the 
United  States  and,  in  turn,  the  simplicity  of  the  hive  is 
doubtless  due  to  the  demands  of  practical  men.  The  origi- 
nal Langstroth  hive 
was  much  more 
elaborate  than  our 
present  hives  and, 
with  the  advance 
of  the  industry,  all 
the  superfluous 
parts  of  the  hive 
have  been  removed 
one  by  one.  The 
present  hive,  there- 
fore, typifies  American  apiculture  of  the  present  day. 
There  are  still  some  hives  used  in  the  United  States  which 


Fig.  12.  — C.D.B.  hive  of  Ireland. 


Fig.  13.  — Frame  of  C.D.B.  hive. 


12  Beekeeping 

are  less  simple  than  the  hive  here  mentioned,  but  such 
hives  are  usually  of  brief  popularity  or  are  adapted  for  a 
limited  number  of  beekeepers. 

In  future  references  to  apparatus  in  this  book,  emphasis 
is  placed  on  the  fact  that  tools  alone  do  not  suffice  but  that 
the  prime  essential  to  business  beekeeping  is  knowledge 
of  the  bees.  However,  it  is  only  just  to  give  credit  to  our 
apparatus  as  the  best  lot  of  tools  ever  devised  for  beekeeping 
work.  The  American  manufacturers  of  beekeeping  supplies 
are  to  be  commended  for  their  efforts  to  make  the  apparatus 
simple  and  to  a  large  degree  standard.  The  American  bee- 
keeper is  to  this  extent  far  in  advance  of  beekeepers  else- 
where.    The  American  apparatus  is  standard  in  Australia. 

These  remarks  are  not  intended  as  derogatory  of  European 
beekeeping.  The  American  beekeeper  owes  much  of  his 
scientific  knowledge  of  bees  to  European  investigators  and 
beekeepers.  It  is  nevertheless  true  that  commercial  bee- 
keeping is  an  American  institution. 

Who  should  he  a  beekeeper  f 

Beekeeping  _  is  a  peculiar  occupation  in  that  it  can  be 
followed  in  town  or  country,  by  young  or  old,  by  rich  or 
poor.  Many  women  are  numbered  among  the  ranks  of 
beekeepers.  To  the  professional  or  business  man,  it  offers 
a  change  from  the  confinement  of  office  or  laboratory.  To 
the  mechanic,  it  serves  equally  as  well  for  recreation.  Many 
teachers  find  it  a  desirable  occupation  during  vacation,  at 
which  time  it  adds  not  a  little  to  the  meager  incomes  pro- 
vided by  parsimonious  school-boards.  Lawyers,  artists, 
farmers,  ministers,  merchants,  brokers,  professors  in  uni- 
versities and  laborers  are  numbered  among  its  devotees. 
Several  old  men  known  to  the  writer  are  kept  mentally 
alert  by  their  work  and  interest  in  the  bees,  while  one  boy 
friend  of  eight  summers  is  a  veteran  in  enthusiasm.  Among 
the  ranks  of  professional  beekeepers  are  found  well-educated 
and  uneducated  men  of  all  ages  and  with  all  the  mental  and 
physical  defects  or  advantages  in  the  category. 


Beekeeping  as  an  Occupation  13 

With  such  an  array,  it  may  seem  fruitless  to  ask  who 
should  be  beekeepers.  The  care  of  bees  is  not,  however, 
equally  well  suited  to  all  persons,  and  it  would  save  much 
disappointment,  both  financial  and  otherwise,  if  this  ques- 
tion were  more  frequently  asked  before  embarking  on  this 
business.  First  of  all  should  be  excluded  those  persons 
who  are  seriously  affected  by  the  poison  of  bee-stings.  To 
some  people,  this  is  a  serious  matter  and,  unless  it  is  im- 
perative that  they  care  for  bees,  it  is  better  for  them  not  to 
undertake  it.  To  practically  all  beginners,  the  stings  are 
annoying,  and  the  experienced  beekeeper,  however  much  he 
may  brag  of  his  indifference  to  stings,  still  suffers  as  much 
pain  from  the  prick  as  he  did  at  first.  With  time  and  numer- 
ous stings,  an  immunity  to  the  poison  is  developed  which 
eliminates  the  after-swelling,  which  is  the  most  annoying 
feature  of  the  stinging.  Nervous  persons  who  carmot  take 
stings  without  excitement  would  do  better  to  keep  away 
from  bees,  as  there  are  times  when  the  best  of  beekeepers 
will  be  punctured. 

To  carry  on  beekeeping  with  interest  and  profit  requires 
an  intimate  study  of  the  bees  and  a  detailed  knowledge  of 
their  needs.  It  further  requires  a  knowledge  of  the  plants 
from  which  they  gather  nectar  so  that  the  necessary  steps 
may  be  taken  to  get  the  colonies  in  proper  condition  for  the 
work  required  of  them.  To  be  a  good  beekeeper,  one  must 
read  and  re-read  the  books  and  journals  pertaining  to  the 
subject,  for  each  reading,  accompanied  by  additional  ex- 
perience among  the  bees,  brings  out  some  new  point  which 
proves  important  in  the  practical  work.  Furthermore, 
the  beekeeper  cannot  work  by  rule  of  thumb.  Bees  are 
living,  lively  animals  and  may  be  *' expected  to  do  the  un- 
expected," as  beekeepers  so  often  express  it.  For  this 
reason,  it  is  necessary  for  the  beekeeper  to  know  the  be- 
havior of  bees  in  all  its  phases  and  in  so  far  as  they  have 
been  determined,  which  is  not  far,  the  causes  of  their  various 
activities.  Obviously,  the  successful  beekeeper  is  a  naturalist 
and  such  persons  are  born,  not  made  successfully.     Patience, 


14  Beekeeping 

power  of  concentration  and  sympathetic  understanding  of 
the  bees  are  essentials  and,  as  a  result,  the  bees  become  pets 
rather  than  beasts  of  burden  to  the  true  bee-crank.  Per- 
sons who  fail  to  appreciate  bees  from  this  point  of  view  will 
probably  find  it  more  pleasant  and  profitable  to  let  them 
alone.  Like  all  general  statements  about  bees,  there  are 
exceptions  to  this  one.  Some  who  are  financially  successful 
beekeepers  are  totally  devoid  of  sympathetic  interest  in 
bees  and  have  learned  to  handle  bees  as  it  were  by  force. 
Such  men  are  out  of  place  as  amateur  beekeepers  and  in- 
deed fail  to  reach  the  highest  success  as  professionals. 

The  ardent  bee-man  finds  pleasure  in  comparing  expe- 
riences and  observations  with  his  co-workers,  in  conventions 
and  out,  and  some  of  the  best  ''conventions"  are  those  in 
which  two  or  three  experienced  beekeepers  spend  half  or 
more  of  the  night  in  talking  over  their  latest  ideas.  They 
discuss  new  and  supposedly  improved  apparatus  and  all 
the  latest  systems  of  manipulation,  for  there  seem  to  be 
styles  and  fads  in  beekeeping  as  in  clothes.  The  man  who 
fails  to  find  pleasure  in  such  an  interchange  of  views  will 
find  himself  out  of  place  among  bee-enthusiasts. 

Not  only  is  a  knowledge  of  what  to  do  necessary  to  success 
with  bees,  but  it  is  equally  necessary  that  the  right  thing 
be  done  at  the  right  time.  To  put  on  comb-honey  supers 
too  late,  to  delay  the  necessary  steps  in  swarm  control  or 
to  neglect  the  preparation  of  bees  for  winter,  all  mean  loss 
in  bees,  honey  and  money.  In  the  make-up  of  the  beekeeper 
must  be  promptness  to  do  the  things  which  his  experience 
teaches.  In  the  hands  of  the  wise,  the  bees  need  remark- 
ably little  attention.  They  should  not  be  manipulated 
daily  and  the  hive  is  better  unopened  imless  some  change 
is  called  for.  The  beginner  errs  almost  universally  in  over- 
manipulation.  It  must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  the 
reduction  in  handling  which  comes  with  experience  is  not 
neglect,  and  the  beekeeper  must  know  daily  whether  the 
condition  of  the  nectar-sec  ?ting  plants  or  of  his  colonies 
calls  for  any  manipulation.     This  requires  experience  and 


Beekeeping  as  an  Occupation 


15 


observation    and    finally    promptness    in    doing    what    is 
necessary. 

Instead  then  of  being  an  occupation  fitted  for  everyone, 
beekeeping  is  well  fitted  only  to  the  minority.  The  array 
of  human  excellences  here  enumerated  are  not  all  necessarily 
present  in  perfection,  but  the  nearer  the  approach  of  these 
qualities  to  that  happy  state,  the  more  satisfactory  will 
beekeeping  be  found  as  a  vocation  or  avocation.  It  is  to 
be  hoped  that  these  formidable  requirements  will  not  deter 
the  potential  bee-crank  from  making  a  beginning. 

Beekeeping  for  women. 

A  question  much  discussed  in  books  and  journals  on  bees 
is  that  of  beekeeping  for  women.  Many  women  can  and  do 
handle  bees  (Fig.  14) 
with  marked  success. 
In  those  parts  of  the 
business  which  require 
delicacy  of  touch  and 
minute  attention,  such 
as  queen-rearing, 
women  often  surpass 
men  in  proficiency.  As 
amateur  beekeepers 
they  are  at  home.  The 
question  which  usually 
presents  itself,  however, 
is  whether  beekeeping 
is  suitable  for  women 
as  a  means  of  earning 
a  livelihood  and  re- 
peatedly has  the  writer 
been  asked  for  advice 

on  this  subject.  Professional  beekeeping  on  a 
sufficiently  large  to  supply  an  adequate  income  requires 
long  hours  of  work  in  the  hot  sun,  heavy  hfting  and 
unremitting  physical  endurance.     On  a  small  scale  these 


Fig.  14.  —  A  woman  beekeeper. 


scale 


16  Beekeeping 

obstacles  may  be  overcome,  but  in  a  commercial  apiary  the 
work  must  be  done  promptly,  for  delay  means  loss.  While 
some  women  have  found  pleasure  and  profit  in  commercial 
beekeeping,  it  emphatically  cannot  be  recommended  for 
the  majority  of  women,  and  this  should  be  made  clear  to 
avoid  disappointment  for  those  who  may  be  attracted  to  it. 
Of  course,  this  applies  only  to  those  women  who  have  no 
man  in  the  company  to  do  the  heavy  work.  Many  a  pro- 
fessional beekeeper  has  received  assistance  of  incalculable 
value  from  the  women  of  the  family.  It  should  be  made 
clear  that  the  obstacles  to  the  commercial  success  of  women 
beekeepers  are  physical  ones  only. 

Advantages  in  extensive  beekeeping. 

Several  references  have  been  made  to  the  desirability  of 
encouraging  professional  beekeeping,  and  this  should  be  ex- 
plained to  avoid  misunderstanding.  Everyone  who  desires 
to  keep  bees,  of  course,  has  that  privilege,  so  long  as  by  so 
doing  he  does  not  interfere  with  the  rights  of  others.  By 
common  consent,  a  man's  bees  are  not  considered  as  tres- 
passing when  they  go  outside  his  land  for  forage  and  conse- 
quently a  beekeeper  cannot  legally  or  morally  claim  the 
exclusive  right  to  keep  bees  in  a  locality.  The  beginner, 
therefore,  is  not  considered  as  overstepping  his  rights  in 
getting  bees.  Taking  a  broader  view  of  the  subject,  how- 
ever, the  professional  beekeeper  by  his  knowledge  of  the 
subject  is  able  to  produce  larger  crops,  thereby  utilizing  the 
available  nectar  more  economically.  By  this  same  knowl- 
edge and  his  better  equipment,  he  is  able  to  produce  a  better 
quality  of  honey.  It  is  therefore  evident  that  from  the 
standpoint  of  conserving  a  resource  to  the  best  advantage 
there  is  reason  to  encourage  the  extensive  beekeeper. 

In  case  a  brood  disease  breaks  out  in  a  community,  then 
there  is  every  reason  for  taking  sides  with  the  professional 
beekeeper.  The  man  with  a  few  colonies  is  not  financially 
interested  to  an  extent  which  will  compel  him  to  care  for 
the  disease  and  in  disease  control  it  is  usually  necessary 


Beekeeping  as  an  Occupation  17 

that  there  be  some  incentive  to  compel  action,  the  financial 
incentive  being  most  efficient.  The  small  beekeeper  usually 
becomes  a  menace  to  the  industry  in  such  an  outbreak  and 
not  until  most  of  these  men  lose  all  they  have  is  much  progress 
made  against  disease. 

The  most  economical  development  of  the  larger  honey 
markets  for  the  beekeepers  of  any  region  can  come  only 
through  co-operation  in  buying  necessary  supplies  and  in 
selling  their  products.  So  long  as  there  are  so  many  thou- 
sands of  beekeepers  with  small  financial  interest  in  the 
industry,  such  co-operation  is  rendered  virtually  impossible 
and  the  industry  is  thereby  retarded.  In  some  of  the 
western  states,  beekeeping  is  carried  on  chiefly  by  extensive 
beekeepers  and  they  have  found  co-operation  practical  and 
profitable,  while  the  beekeepers  of  the  east  still  fight  their 
battles  individually,  co-operation  being  made  practically 
impossible  because  of  the  thousands  of  beekeepers  who 
could  not  be  reached  by  such  a  co-operative  movement. 

Similarly,  it  is  difficult  to  bring  about  concerted  effort 
in  having  desirable  laws  passed  for  the  protection  of  the 
industry  or  in  instituting  any  agency  for  the  advancement 
of  the  industry  imless  there  are  a  number  of  men  whose 
financial  interest  is  sufficient  to  induce  them  to  spend  time 
and  money  in  working  for  the  things  they  need  as  beekeepers. 
Beekeepers  are  very  human  people,  and  ''money  talks"  in 
this  business  as  well  as  in  other  lines  of  human  endeavor. 
There  is  therefore  adequate  reason  in  the  view  that  the 
development  of  beekeeping  to  its  true  place  in  American 
agriculture  depends  on  the  making  of  a  large  number  of 
professional  beekeepers  and  this  in  turn  implies  the  elimina- 
tion of  the  beekeeper  with  a  few  colonies,  little  interest  and 
still  less  of  willingness  to  work  for  the  industry. 

While  the  number  of  professional  beekeepers  is  increasing 
in  a  way  to  give  satisfaction  to  those  interested  in  the  best 
development  of  the  industry,  a  word  of  caution  may  not  be 
amiss.  Some  beekeepers  feel  that  as  professionals  they 
must  engage  in  no  other  business,  whereas  for  certain  months 


18 


Beekeeping 


they  are  not  occupied  for  more  than  a  small  fraction  of  the 
time.  Without  entering  into  a  moral  discussion  on  the 
virtues  of  industry  or  the  various  things  that  Satan  is  said 
to  find  for  idle  hands  to  do,  it  is  obvious  that  the  professional 
beekeeper  may  use  other  occupations  to  add  to  his  income 
just  as  the  amateur  beekeeper  uses  his  bees.  As  the  bee- 
keeper becomes  more  proficient  he  eliminates  all  unneces- 
sary manipulation  so  that  the  care  of  a  goodly  number  of 
colonies  may  take  a  relatively  short  time.  When  the  crop 
is  off  and  sold  he  has  little  to  engage  his  attention  until  the 
next  season,  especially  if  his  bees  are  wintered  out  of  doors. 

Where  bees  may  he  kept. 

It  has  been  the  pleasure  of  the  writer  to  visit  apiaries  on 
the  roofs  of  city  buildings  (Fig.  15)  and  in  the  almost  desert 

valleys  of  Cali- 
fornia (Fig.  166), 
in  city  back- 
yards (Fig.  16) 
and  in  the  moun- 
tain  wilds,  in 
small  towns,  on 
farms,  in  Canada 
and  in  the  tropics 
(Fig.  17).  In  di- 
versity of  loca- 
tion these  api- 
aries are  as  varied 
as  their  owners. 
While  recruits  to 
the  ranks  of  beekeepers  may  be  found  in  all  ages  and 
conditions  of  men,  so  bees  may  be  kept  in  places  which 
would  at  first  appear  utterly  unproductive,  as  well  as  in 
places  which  are  obviously  abundant  in  their  nectar  supply. 
The  uninformed  observer  may  fail  utterly  in  his  estimate 
of  the  value  of  a  location  from  the  standpoint  of  the  bee. 
Most  of  the  valuable  nectar-secreting  plants  do  not  have 


Fig.  15.  —  Roof  apiary  in  lower  New  York  City. 


Beekeeping  as  an  Occupation 


19 


large  highly  col- 
ored flowers,  and 
the  cultivated 
varieties  of  the 
flower  garden  are 
of  insignificant 
value.  Bees  fly 
for  two  or  three 
miles  for  forage 
and  may  go  even 
farther  in  emer- 
gency. In  choos- 
ing a  location, 
it  is  therefore 
necessary  that 


Fig.  16.  —  Apiary  on  shed  roof,  to  economize  space. 


in  the  range  of  flight  there  be  an  adequate  supply  of  nectar- 
producing  plants.     The  ideal  location  is  obviously  one  in 

which  the  nectar 
supply  is  near 
so  that  it  may 
be  obtained 
without  the  loss 
of  energy  inci- 
dent  to  long 
flights. 

Results  to  he  ex- 
pected. 

The  stories 
sometimes  told 
of  the  crops  that 
have  been  obtained  from  single  colonies  or  of  the  rapidity  with 
which  the  number  of  colonies  may  be  increased  are  apt  to  mis- 
lead the  beginner.  While  several  hundred  pounds  of  honey 
may  at  times  be  obtained  from  a  single  colony  in  a  season, 
this  is  by  no  means  usual.  In  apiaries  managed  for  comb- 
honey  production,  it  is  perhaps  fair  to  estimate  the  average 


Fig.  17.  —  Tropical  apiary,  San  Sabastian,  Porto 
Rico. 


20  Beekeeping 

annual  crop  at  25  to  30  sections.  For  extracted-honey, 
larger  averages  may  be  expected,  perhaps  of  40  to  60  pounds. 
The  financial  returns  depend  entirely  on  the  market  and  the 
method  of  selling  the  honey.  If  sold  by  the  beekeeper 
direct  to  the  consumer,  a  pound  of  extracted-honey  brings 
from  10  to  20  cents,  while  a  section  of  comb-honey  sells  at 
15  to  25  cents.  If  sold  to  dealers,  the  return  is  less  but 
there  is  less  liabihty  of  financial  loss  and  less  time  consumed 
in  selling.  Naturally  these  estimates  must  be  dependent 
on  the  quality  of  the  product  and  on  the  neatness  of  the 
final  package.  In  addition  to  the  labor  there  will  be  other 
expenses  for  supplies  such  as  comb-foundation,  sections  and 
occasional  new  hives  and  fixtures,  not  counting  the  apparatus 
used  in  increasing  the  apiary.  These  may  cost  from  50 
cents  to  $1.00  for  each  colony  in  a  season.  Estimates  such 
as  these  are  really  of  httle  value  since  the  returns  differ  so 
greatly  according  to  the  kind  of  honey  obtained  and  the 
facilities  for  marketing.  For  example,  the  white  clover 
honey  of  the  North  brings  a  higher  wholesale  price  than 
the  amber  honeys  which  come  from  most  regions  of  the 
South  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  southern  beekeeper  en- 
joys a  longer  nectar-secreting  season  and  usually  obtains 
larger  crops  from  each  colony. 

Another  factor  which  must  not  be  overlooked  is  the  bee- 
keeper. Anyone  may  reap  a  heavy  harvest  in  the  season 
when  nectar  is  abundant  but  in  the  lean  years,  which  come 
more  often  than  desired,  only  the  good  beekeeper  makes  the 
most  of  the  nectar  at  hand.  And  then  come  years  of  prac- 
tically total  dearth  of  nectar,  when  feeding  is  necessary  to 
keep  the  colonies  ahve. 

Taking  all  these  factors  into  consideration,  it  may  be 
justly  concluded  that  a  successful  beekeeper  is  usually  well 
repaid  for  the  time  he  spends  in  his  work,  if  he  considers 
the  return  in  the  sense  of  wage.  He  may  also  consider  that 
he  has  received  the  interest  on  his  original  relatively  small 
investment.  He  usually  averages  little  more  than  this, 
however,  so  that  beekeeping  is  in  no  sense  a  "get-rich- 


Beekeeping  as  an  Occupation  21 

quick"  business.  Its  advantage  as  a  recreation  over  most 
other  occupations  of  a  similar  character  is  that  it  is  a  means 
of  occupying  time  not  otherwise  engaged  to  a  financial 
profit  and  the  returns  therefore  often  add  that  part  to  the 
income  which  brings  comforts  and  pleasures. 

Beekeeping  yields  a  quick  return  on  the  investment,  for 
frequently  in  a  good  year  a  colony  will  pay  for  itself.  In 
fact  there  are  few  branches  of  agriculture  which  on  so  small 
an  investment  will  yield  as  great  a  return.  It  may  at  least 
be  said  for  the  person  who  decides  to  try  out  beekeeping 
that  he  does  not  stand  to  lose  much.  This  chance  calls 
to  mind  a  conversation  with  a  western  friend.  In  recount- 
ing the  present  advantages  and  past  glory  of  his  beautiful 
city,  he  recalled  the  former  gambling  days  when  everything 
was  "open."  After  a  vivid  description  of  those  halcyon 
days  and  of  some  of  the  men  of  that  time,  he  said,  **I  knew 
some  of  those  men  well.  They  were  personal  friends  of 
mine  and  they  saw  nothing  wrong  in  gambling.  And  I 
can  appreciate  their  point  of  view  —  for  I'm  a  beekeeper 
myself." 

In  discussing  the  financial  results,  it  is  far  from  wise  to 
overlook  the  other  benefits.  Beekeeping,  to  an  enthusiast, 
means  out  of  doors  and  intimacy  with  these  interesting 
insects  which  have  been  studied  for  centuries  and  still  re- 
main an  unsolved  riddle  in  many  of  their  activities.  It 
may  mean  health  to  the  person  confined  to  an  office.  It 
means  to  a  congenial  spirit  association  with  bee-enthusiasts, 
than  whom  no  more  optimistic  and  warm-hearted  people 
exist.  If  these  things  make  an  appeal,  then  may  apiculture 
be  classed  as  yielding  the  greatest  profits  that  can  be  con- 
ceived. 

If  now  we  attempt  to  decide  for  the  questioning  prospec- 
tive beekeeper  whether  he  should  take  up  bees,  from  the 
previous  discussion  the  whole  question  is  solved:  if  he 
will  like  beekeeping,  he  should  take  it  up ;  if  not,  he  would 
better  never  have  considered  it.  And  this  is  about  as  re- 
liable and  lucid  a  prophecy  as  is  usually  possible. 


CHAPTER  II 

APPARATUS 

Before  discussing  the  phenomena  observed  in  the  activi- 
ties of  bees,  on  which  the  practical  manipulations  rest,  it  is 
desirable  that  some  description  be  given  of  the  hives  and 
equipment  used  in  beekeeping,  since  frequent  references 
are  made  to  these  things  in  the  chapters  dealing  with  be- 
havior as  well  as  in  those  concerning  the  practical  work  of 
the  apiary.  Since  this  subject  is  to  be  introduced  early, 
it  seems  best  to  complete  the  discussion  here,  except  for 
certain  pieces  of  apparatus  used  in  special  manipulations. 

Relative  importance  of  equipment  and  skill. 

It  is  important  that  the  relation  of  the  equipment  of  the 
apiary  to  the  needs  of  the  bees  be  understood.  A  hive  is 
not  only  a  home  for  the  bees  but  it  is,  especially,  a  tool  fo^ 
the  beekeeper  and,  being  only  a  tool,  it  is  of  far  less  importance 
in  apiary  management  than  the  skill  and  experience  of  the 
beekeeper. 

By  many  beekeepers,  especially  among  beginners,  the 
apparatus  of  beekeeping  is  given  undue  importance  and 
the  interest  aroused  by  the  work  of  putting  together  the 
carefully  manufactured  supplies  is  really  quite  excusable. 
In  the  American  literature  on  beekeeping  the  description 
of  apparatus  plays  too  prominent  a  part.  Tools  alone  do 
not  make  the  mechanic.  It  is  therefore  proposed  here  to 
give  only  a  brief  description  of  the  general  equipment  of 
beekeeping,  leaving  for  the  chapters  on  special  phases  of 
beekeeping,  the  description  of  the  apparatus  used  in  these 
manipulations.     For  greater  detail,   the  reader  is  referred 

22 


Apparatus  23 

to  catalogues  of  supplies  which  manufacturers  are  quite 
willing  to  furnish. 

It  would  be  interesting  to  trace  the  evolution  of  the  various 
implements  used  in  beekeeping,  but  this  is  beyond  the  scope 
of  this  book.  For  certain  appliances,  discussed  in  later 
chapters,  such  a  method  of  treatment  has  seemed  desirable 
and,  in  fact,  to  discuss  all  of  the  present  apparatus  in  that 
manner  would  make  the  reasons  for  their  construction 
clearer.  There  should  some  day  be  prepared  a  book  on 
the  evolution  of  hives  and  the  beekeeper's  equipment,  if 
for  no  other  purpose  than  to  show  the  ardent  inventor, 
who  is  usually  a  beginner,  the  steps  that  have  already  been 
taken  and  passed  by  and  to  prevent  the  repeated  re-dis- 
covery of  abandoned  apparatus.  In  recent  times,  the 
industry  is  relatively  free  from  the  exploitation  of  worth- 
less apparatus  but,  at  about  the  time  of  the  invention  of 
the  Langstroth  hive,  the  beekeeping  industry  was  well- 
nigh  buried  in  bizarre  hives.  The  industry  has  not  ceased 
to  advance,  but  beekeepers  have  outgrown  the  belief  that 
success  depends  on  tools.  The  recognized  essentials  of 
beekeeping  are  knowledge  of  the  bees,  skill  in  manipula- 
tion and  simplicity  in  apparatus. 

The  supplies  of  the  beekeeper  have  few  prerequisites. 
They  must  be  simple  in  construction,  strongly  built  and, 
above  all,  interchangeable  throughout.  The  manufacturers 
of  beekeeping  suppHes  in  the  United  States  have  done  much 
to  simplify  the  equipment.  The  best  materials  are  usually 
employed. 

Apiary  house. 

In  the  main  or  home  apiary,  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  work- 
shop, usually  known  by  beekeepers  as  the  ''honey-house," 
where  supplies  may  be  prepared  and  the  crop  cared  for  and 
perhaps  stored  for  a  time.  This  house  should  be  below  the 
bees  if  the  ground  slopes  (p.  292).  It  is  perhaps  needless 
to  give  plans  for  an  apiary  house  since  the  experienced  bee- 
keeper will  easily  construct  one  that  fits  his  individual  needs 


24 


Beekeeping 


and  the  beginner  will  use  what  he  has  at  hand.  One  sug- 
gestion is  perhaps  not  amiss,  if  one  may  judge  from  the 
honey-houses   usually   seen.     The    house    should    be    large 

enough    to    permit    the 


storage  of  the  surplus 
fixtures  out  of  season 
and  of  the  crop  until 
it  is  shipped.  Beekeep- 
ers frequently  fail  to 
provide  adequate  space 
for  these  uses. 

Windows  and  doors  ^ 
should  be  thoroughly 
screened  to  prevent  the 
entrance  of  bees.  The 
door  should  swing  freely 
both  ways  (Fig.  18)  so 
that  the  beekeeper  may 
pass  through  with  his 
arms  full.  The  window 
screens  are  best  made  by  tacking  wire-cloth  to  the  outside 
of  the  window  casings,  allowing  it  to  extend  about  six 
inches  above  the  opening.     The   upper   border    should  be 

held  out  one-quarter  of  an  inch  

by  narrow  wooden  strips  to  pro- 
vide abundant  exits  for  bees 
which  accidentally  get  into  the 
house.  Bees  rarely  enter  such 
openings  and  those  which  fly  to 
the  screens  from  the  inside  im- 
mediately crawl  upward  and  go  out,  promptly  clearing 
the  room  of  bees.  Bee-escapes  (Fig.  19)  may  be  used 
at   the   corners   of   ordinary   framed   window   screens   but 


Fig.  18.  —  Honey-house  door.  The 
wooden  door  rolls  clear  of  the  opening 
and  the  screen  door  swings  both  ways. 


Fig.  19.  —  Porter  bee-escape. 


1  A.  C.  Miller  has  recently  called  attention  to  the  desirability  of  a  solid 
door  to  the  apiary  house,  so  that  bees  will  not  be  attracted  to  this  opening 
by  the  odor  of  honey.  The  suggestion  is  good  and  the  desirability  of 
having  such  a  door  swing  both  ways  still  exists. 


Apparatus  25 

these  are  less  effective.  The  best  arrangement  of  windows 
is  to  have  the  sash  shde  horizontally  on  runners  so  that  the 
openings  may  be  entirely  free  from  glass.  By  this  arrange- 
ment, bees  are  not  imprisoned  on  single  window  panes  and 
in  hot  weather  the  beekeeper  appreciates  all  the  breeze 
that  may  be  allowed  to  enter  the  house. 

Benches,  cupboards  and  racks  for  small  supplies  and 
tools  can  be  arranged  to  suit  individual  needs,  but  these 
too  should  be  large  and  roomy.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  provide 
racks  for  surplus  combs,  the  frames  being  hung  in  strips  of 
wood  properly  spaced. 

The  kind  of  honey  produced  determines  the  other  features 
of  the  house.  For  comb-honey  production,  a  well-sup- 
ported second  story  is  recommended  for  the  storage  of 
honey.  In  extracting,  it  is  desirable  that  the  extractor, 
uncapping  boxes  and  tanks  be  so  arranged  that  it  is  not 
necessary  to  lift  heavy  supers  and  cans  and  so  that  at  no 
time  the  honey  must  be  lifted  by  hand.  Honey  is  best 
stored  in  a  warm  place  and  a  second  story  or  attic  is  ideal 
also  for  extracted-honey.  By  the  use  of  a  honey-pump, 
the  honey  can  be  raised  to  a  high  level  and  it  can  then  be 
moved  by  gravity  in  future  bottling  or  packing.  While 
general  advice  on  the  construction  and  arrangement  of 
honey-houses  is  difficult  to  give,  it  will  profit  the  beekeeper 
carefully  to  study  his  needs  in  drawing  his  plans,  so  that 
labor  will  be  reduced. 

For  the  out-apiary,  a  smaller  house  will  serve  and  many 
beekeepers  do  not  have  any  house  in  such  yards.  The 
portable  extracting  outfit  is  one  solution,  and  for  comb- 
honey  production  it  is  as  easy  to  haul  home  in  the  supers 
as  in  shipping  cases.  For  extracted-honey  production,  a 
small  extracting  house  is  usually  preferable. 

If  bees  are  wintered  in  a  cellar  (p.  353),  this  may  be  built 
under  the  apiary  house.  It  is  desirable  to  provide  a  cook 
stove,  which  is  a  comfort  in  chilly  weather  and  is  serviceable 
in  wax-extraction.  Running  water  in  the  honey-house  will 
be  found  a  great  convenience. 


26 


Beekeeping 


Hive  stands. 

The  arrangement  of  the  hives  will  determine  the  character 
of  the  stand.     A  wooden  frame,  bricks,  tile  (Fig.  20),  con- 
crete blocks  or  flat  stones  are  equally 
good  to  raise  the  bottom  board  of  the 
hive  above  the  ground  so  that  it  will 

P — H        not  rot.     It  is  sufficient  to  raise  it  only 

^  "^  .  a  a  few  inches  to  allow  air  to  circulate 
freely  under  the  bottom.  In  a  perma- 
nent apiary,  it  is  convenient  to  arrange 
the  hive  stands  in  the  desired  order 
and  to  number  them  by  the  system 
used  in  numbering  the  colonies  for  pur- 
poses of  record. 

Hives  and  hive  parts. 

The  hive  which  opens  at  the  top  and 
in  which  the  combs  are  built  in  freely 
movable  frames  is  the  one  generally 
used  in  America.  It  was  invented  by 
Rev.  L.  L.  Langstroth,  the  Father  of 
American  beekeeping,  in  1851.  From 
this  date,  the  development  of  modern  beekeeping  begins. 
The  original  Langstroth  hive  has  been  somewhat  modified  as 
the  result  of  the  experience  of  later  years,  but  as  now  used 
(Fig.  20)  it  consists  of  a  plain  wooden  box  holding  frames 
hung  from  a  rabbet  at  the  top  (Fig.  21)  and  which  do  not 
touch  the  sides,  top  or  bottom.  The  box  is  usually  dove- 
tailed and  is  commonly  made  of  white  pine  dressed  to  |  inch. 
The  greatest  advance  of  the  Langstroth  hive  is  not  so 
much  in  the  movable  frames  as  in  the  free  space  (Fig.  21) 
all  about  them.  The  size  of  this  space  is  of  the  greatest 
importance,  it  being  such  that  bees  pass  through  it  freely 
but  do  not  build  wax  nor  deposit  propolis  in  it.  The  manu- 
facturers of  beekeepers'  supplies  make  this  space  a  quarter 
of  an  inch. 


Fig.  20.  —  Ten-frame 
Langstroth  hive 
with  queen-ex- 
cluder, comb-honey 
super  and  telescope 
cover. 


^^^H 


Apparatus  27 

The  plain  box  rests  on  a  bottom  board,  so  made  that 
there  is  an  entrance  space  (Fig.  20),  and  over  the  hive  is  a 
cover  which  can  be  entirely  removed  to  permit  the  removal 
of  frames.  There  are  various  types  of  bottoms  and  covers, 
with  no  marked  advantages  in  one  over  the  others.  The 
telescope  cover  over  a  thin  inner  cover  is  a  good  type  (Fig.  20). 

The  size  of  frame  standard  in  America  is  that  of  the  Lang- 
stroth  (or  L)  hive,  9|  high  by  17f  inches  long.  Frames  of 
other  sizes,  but  having  the  same  method  of  hanging,  have 
been  devised  and  a  larger  size  has  much  to  commend  it,  but 
the  desirabiUty  of  imiformity  outweighs  the  advantages  of 
the  odd  sizes. 

The  number  of  frames  in  the  hive  is 
determined  by  the  character  of  the  local- 
ity and  the  kind  of  honey  produced. 
Many  comb-honey  producers  in  the  white 
clover  region  prefer  the  eight-frame  hive  Fig.  21.  — Diagram 
while  the  majority  of  extracted-honey  :5°Sarrr 
producers  use  the  ten-frame  size.  Some  bet  in  Langstroth 
prefer  a  twelve-frame  hive.  The  sales  of  ^^^e. 
supply  dealers  indicate  a  growing  prefer- 
ence for  the  ten-frame  size  among  all  classes  of  beekeep- 
ers. In  deciding  which  size  of  hive  is  preferable,  the 
usual  method  is  to  determine  the  amount  of  brood  that 
can  be  reared  by  a  strong  colony  and  to  calculate  the  requi- 
site number  of  combs  from'  their  area.  This  is  not  an 
entirely  reliable  criterion  for  the  following  reasons:  (1)  the 
outside  combs  are  frequently  unavailable  for  brood-rearing, 
because  of  inaccurate  spacing,  (2)  the  top  rows  of  cells  in 
combs  built  on  comb-foundation  usually  sag,  reducing  the 
area  available  for  brood  by  a  depth  of  one  to  two  inches, 
(3)  there  is  frequently  considerable  drone  comb  or  irregular 
comb.  The  comb  area  needed  for  brood  depends  on  the 
character  and  time  of  the  honey-flow  and  on  the  system 
followed.  For  example,  if  the  main  honey-flow  comes 
early  in  the  season  {e.g.  white  clover  in  the  North),  it  is 
desirable  to  build  up  the  colony  with  great  rapidity.     This 


28  Beekeeping 

may  be  done  by  stimulating  breeding,  and  since  more  space 
is  then  needed  it  can  be  supplied  by  giving  two  hive-bodies 
for  the  brood.  Later,  when  brood  is  less  to  be  desired,  the 
breeding  space  may  be  reduced. 

Another  type  of  frame  is  sometimes  used  and  should 
perhaps  be  mentioned,  although  its  use  is  decreasing. 
These  frames  have  end-bars  wide  enough  so  that  they 
touch  each  other  and  the  bees  cannot  pass  around  the  ends 
of  frames.  The  chief  advantage  stated  is  greater  v/armth 
in  winter.  Some  frames  of  this  type  are  suspended  from 
the  top,  others  from  the  middle  of  the  end-bar  and  some 
are  supported  from  below. 

Frames  of  any  description  must  be  spaced  so  as  to  give 
room  between  the  combs  to  allow  brood  to  be  reared  in  the 
cells  and  also  to  provide  space  enough  for 
the  bees  between  the  combs.  The  spacing 
usually  adopted  is  If  inches  from  center 
to  center  but  some  beekeepers  prefer  1| 
Fig.  22.  — Spacing  inches.^  The  closed-end  frames  when 
of  Hofifman  frames,  brought  together  are  properly  spaced. 
While  the  larger  number  of  beekeepers  do 
not  use  the  closed-end  type,  various  devices  are  in  use  for 
the  spacing  of  open-end  frames.  The  frame  most  commonly 
used  has  the  end-bars  wide  enough  for  a  short  distance  so 
that  they  touch  at  the  top  (Hoffman  frames.  Fig.  22).  The 
metal-spaced  frame  is  possibly  an  improvement.  Some 
honey-producers  object  to  spacing  devices  because  they 
interfere  in  uncapping,  and  this  objection  is  largely  over- 
come by  the  use  of  staples  in  the  side  of  the  end-bar. 

To  obtain  regular  cells  in  the  comb,  comb-foundation,  a 
thin  sheet  of  pure  beeswax  embossed  to  correspond  with 
the  bases  of  cells,  is  placed  in  the  frames.  On  this  as  a  guide, 
the  bees  build  the  side  walls  of  the  cells,  utilizing  to  some 
extent  the  extra  wax  in  the  foundation.  Foundation  is 
made  in  various  thicknesses,  the  thinnest  being  .used  for 
comb-honey,  and  in  both  worker  and  drone  cell  size. 

1  The  English  frames  are  l^V  inches  from  center  to  center. 


Apparatus 


29 


Fig.  23.  —  Spur  wire-imbedder. 


To  strengthen  the  combs,  it  is  customary  to  wire  the 
frames  with  fine  (No.  30  gauge,  tinned)  wire.  The  wires 
are  generally  stretched  horizontally,  and  most  frames  as 
they  come  from  the  manufacturer  are  pierced  for  wiring. 
After  the  wires  are  stretched  tight,  the  foundation  is  fas- 
tened to  the  top  of  the  frame 
and  the  wire  is  imbedded  in  the 
foundation,  usually  by  pressure. 
The  spur  imbedder  (Fig.  23)  is 
generally  used  but  is  not  espe- 
cially good.  Heat  generated  by  a  weak  electric  current  is 
sometimes  used,  but  perhaps  the  best  method  is  to  run 
along  the  wire  a  small  warm  soldering  iron  with  a  notch 
in  the  point. 

Whatever  style  of  hive  is  adopted,  the  parts  must  be 
accurately  cut  so  that  the  bee-spaces  are  of  the  right  size 
and  so  that  the  apiary  equipment  may  be  interchangeable 
throughout.  Hives  or  frames  of  different  sizes  or  of  im- 
proper dimensions  are  perhaps  the  worst  inconveniences 
that  can  be  found  in  an  apiary.     The  materials  used  should 

be  the  best,  for  the  equipment  is 
often  used  for  many  years.  As  a 
rule,  it  is  better  to  buy  hives  and 
frames  and,  in  fact,  practi(?ally  all 
the  necessary  supphes  from  the 
regular  manufacturers  of  such  ar- 
ticles. This  advice  is  not  given 
as  an  advertisement  for  the  manu- 
facturer but  is  based  on  the  rec- 
ollection of  ill-spaced,  inaccurately 
cut,  home-made  outfits  which  have 
been  encountered  in  traveling 
among  beekeepers.  Obviously,  an  expert  wood-worker  can 
do  as  well  as  the  regular  manuf  acturpr,  but  even  then  the  cost 
of  home-made  supplies  usually  exceeds  the  price  charged 
by  the  dealers,  when  one  considers  the  time  consumed. 
The  outside  of  hives  should  be  painted  to  protect  them 


Fig.  24.  —  Smoker. 


30 


Beekeeping 


from  the  weather.  It  is  most  important  that  the  joint  or 
dovetail  be  painted  as  decay  starts  there  in  unpainted  hives. 
White  paint  (white  lead  and  raw  linseed  oil)  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred as  it  makes  a  cooler  hive  than  dark  colors.  For  the 
sake  of  the  appearance  of  the  apiary,  all  hives  should  be  of 
the  same  color.  This  is  also  important  if  one  wishes  to 
interchange  hives  in  the  apiary. 

The  hive,  as  it  has  been  discussed  so  far,  is  essentially 
the  home  of  the  bees  and  is  occupied  by  them  throughout 
the  year.  This  portion  is  usually  known  as  the  brood- 
chamber.  For  surplus  honey,  on  which  the  beekeeper  de- 
pends for  his  profit,  additional  parts  are  needed  and  these 
are  discussed  in  connection  with  the  production  of  the 
various  kinds  of  honey. 

Equipment  for  handling  bees. 

A  few  special  tools  are  necessary  in  handling  bees.  A 
good  smoker  (Fig.  24),  consisting  of  a  tin  or  copper  receptacle 

in  which  to  burn  rotten  wood  or 
other  materials,  with  a  bellows  at- 
tached to  force  a  draft,  is  in- 
dispensable. The  medium-sized 
smokers  are  best  for  the  beginner 
and  the  professional  beekeeper  may 
learn  by  experience  what  size  is 
best  suited  to  his  needs.  The 
German  beekeeper  often  uses  a 
specially  constructed  pipe  (Fig. 
25),  which  is  naturally  a  dual-pur- 
pose tool. 

A  veil  of  black  material,  prefer- 
ably of  cotton  netting  with  a  silk 
tulle  front  (Fig.  26),  is  needed  to 
protect  the  face  from  stings.  Even 
a  seasoned  beekeeper,  who  some- 
times likes  to  brag  that  he  never  uses  a  veil,  may  find  it 
convenient  to  have  a  veil  thrown  back  on  his  hat,  which  can 


Fig.  25.  —  German  beekeep 
er's  pipe. 


Apparatus 


31 


Fig.  26.  —  Cotton  netting  veil  with  silk 
tulle  front. 


be  brought  down  when 
the  bees  become  annoy- 
ing. Black  wire-cloth 
veils  are  often  used  and, 
while  they  are  a  better 
protection  than  the  cloth 
veils,  they  are  less  con- 
venient as  they  cannot 
so  easily  be  thrown  back. 

A  steel  tool  of  some 
kind  is  needed  to  pry  up 
covers  and  to  loosen  and 
separate  frames.  A  screw- 
driver will  answer  but 
some  specially  devised 
tools  (Fig.  27)  may  be 
found  preferable. 

Gloves  of  cloth  or  leather  are  sometimes  used  to  protect 
the  hands.     The  handling  of  frames  is  less  impeded  if  the 

finger  ends  are  cut  out.     Gloves 

I  are  hot,  usually  sticky  or  stiff, 

MWWWW^  ^^      after  the  early  stages  of   bee- 

i^  _^*«*-^      keeping  are  passed. 

lilUTi    ■_  "*?lllllll         -^  brush  to  sweep  bees  from 

"  ^      the  combs  is  a  convenience,  es- 

pecially in  removing  bees  while 
taking  frames   from   the   hives 

at  extracting  tir^e.     The  German  brush  with  white  bristles 

(Fig.  28)  is  perhaps  the  best  of  those  manufactured,  but  a 

turkey   feather,    a    long 

whisk  broom  or  a  bunch 

of  weeds  pulled  as  needed 

are  as  good. 
A  tool  box  or  portable 

seat  (Fig.  29)  and  a  wheelbarrow  or  cart  for  carrying  supplies 

and  honey  are  among  the  other  conveniences  used  in  handling 


Fig.  27.  —  Hive  tools. 


IHiil^ 


Fig.  28.  —  German  bee  brush. 


32 


Beekeeping 


Fig.  29.  — Tool-box  seat. 


bees.  A  hive 
cover  on  edge 
makes  a  good 
temporary  seat 
and  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  being 
where  it  is 
needed,  and  when 
needed  is  not 
otherwise  oc- 
cupied. 


Other  equipment. 

There  are  some  additional  appHances  which  may  be  use- 
ful in  any  apiary  and  which  may  be  mentioned  briefly. 
For  making  changes  in  supplies  and  in  devising  parts  for 
special  uses,  the  apiary  equipment  should  include  some 
carpenter's  tools,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  hammers, 
saws  (including  a  keyhole  saw), 
brace  and  bits,  square,  planes 
and  a  good  supply  of  nails  of  as- 
sorted sizes.  Cement-coated  nails 
are  the  best  for  most  purposes 


Fig.  30.  —  Alley  queen  and  drone  trap.       Fig.  31.  —  Bee-escape  board. 

in  the  apiary.  Queen  and  drone  traps,  usually  known  as 
Alley  traps  (Fig.  30),  are  useful  in  catching  undesirable 
drones  or  in  preventing  the  escape  of  a  queen  at  swarming 
time  (p.  273).  Bee-escapes  (Figs.  19  and  31)  are  used  in 
removing   bees   from    supers    of    honey,   especially   comb- 


Apparatus 


33 


Fig.  32.  —  Comb-foundation  cutter. 


honey,  before  it  is  taken  from  the  hive.  An  observatory 
hive  with  glass  sides  will  be  found  instructive  and  enter- 
taining to  the  beginner 
and  even  to  the  more 
experienced  beekeeper, 
if  placed  where  the  bees 
may  be  watched  fre- 
quently. A  comb-foun- 
dation cutter  (Fig.  ^2) 
is  convenient  and  better  than  an  ordinary  knife.  If  the 
beekeeper  desires  to  make  his  own  comb-foundation,  there 

_  __     __  _    .__ ,  are  various  machines  that 

may  be  obtained  for  that 
purpose.  It  is  usually 
cheaper  to  buy  founda- 
tion. In  case  it  is  neces- 
sary to  feed  colonies  in 
order  to  stimulate  brood- 
rearing  or  to  provide 
stores  for  winter  or  dur- 


FiG.  33.  —  Van  Deuscn  hive  clamp. 


ing  a  period  when  no  nectar  is  available,  various  types  of 
feeders  may  be  used.  The  construction  of  these  is  in- 
dicated in  the  illustrations  (Figs.  105,  106,  107  and  108), 
given  in  connection  with  the  discussion  of  feeding  (p.  240). 
Clamps  for  holding  the  parts,  of  the  hive  together  (Fig.  33) 
are  convenient  in  moving,  but  the  wide  (IJ  inch)  staples 
sold  by  dealers  in  beekeeping  supplies  are  as  good. 


CHAPTER  III 
THE  COLONY  AND  ITS  ORGANIZATION 

In  the  proper  management  of  bees,  all  manipulations  must 
be  based  on  their  normal  activities.  Bees  are  creatures  of 
instinct  and  are  limited  in  their  ability  to  adapt  themselves 
to  changes  in  their  environment.  While  in  certain  activities 
they  show  evidences  of  memory,  learning,  association  and 
adaptive  responses,  in  general  they  may  be  considered  as 
responding  to  their  environment  in  a  ''machine-like"  man- 
ner. Because  of  the  nature  of  most  of  their  activities,  it 
becomes  necessary  to  know  their  normal  behavior  even  more 
than  would  be  the  case  were  they  more  adaptive.  In  giving 
directions  for  handling  bees,  the  systems  of  manipulations 
and  apparatus  are  usually  emphasized,  but  in  the  present 
book  the  normal  activities  will  be  made  more  prominent  so 
that  the  reader  may  better  understand  the  reasons  for  the 
usual  rules  and  systems.  Again,  most  of  the  American 
literature  applies  especially  to  the  white  clover  region  and 
the  rules  fail  to  apply  elsewhere,  so  that  there  seems  to  be 
additional  justification  for  a  discussion  of  the  more  funda- 
mental factors  in  beekeeping. 

It  frequently  happens  that  a  supposedly  new  plan  or 
system  is  published  which  is  old,  except  that  it  is  a  new 
adaptation  of  well-known  principles  to  slightly  changed 
conditions.  The  success  or  failure  of  these  plans  when  tried 
by  others  is  often  attributed  to  peculiarities  of  the  various 
localities  where  they  are  tested.  The  word  ''locality"  is 
called  upon  to  cover  a  multitude  of  defects  in  our  knowledge 
of  bee  activities.  Bees  respond  to  stimuli  in  but  one  way 
and  wherever  a  given  stimulus  is  applied,  the  result  is  the 

34 


The  Colony  and  its  Organization  35 

same.  If  one's  knowledge  of  the  circumstances  surround- 
ing his  bees  is  not  adequate  there  seems  to  be  comfort  in 
attributing  to  *'locaUty"  one's  failure  in  the  appHcation  of 
rules. 

Point  of  view. 

It  may  be  worth  while  to  extend  these  introductory  re- 
marks to  explain  the  point  of  view  held  in  the  present  dis- 
cussion of  bee  activities.  There  are  several  distinct  angles 
from  which  one  may  view  the  actions  of  a  colony  of  bees  and, 
since  they  lead  to  unreconcilable  conclusions,  they  cannot 
all  be  correct.  First  to  be  mentioned  among  those  who 
write  concerning  bees  is  the  so-called  student  of  nature  who 
seemingly  tries  to  find  in  bees  a  type  of  intelligence  even 
higher  than  that  possessed  by  man  and  who  attributes  to 
these  insects  thoughts  and  passions  to  which  only  the  poetic 
may  hope  to  attain.  The  complex  colony  life  of  bees  offers 
to  such  a  type  of  mind  unlimited  opportunity  for  speculation, 
which  leads  nowhere  and  is  in  fact  a  detriment  to  legitimate 
investigation.  Allied  to  the  just  mentioned  enthusiasts 
over  nature  are  the  amateur  philosophers  who  hold  up  the 
bee  as  a  brilliant  example  of  industry.  To  all  such  specu- 
lative fancy,  we  may  with  profit  turn  our  backs. 

In  studying  the  behavior  of  any  lower  animal,  there  is  but 
one  source  to  which  one  should  go  for  information.  This  is 
found  in  the  actions  of  the  animal  in  response  to  stimuli  of 
its  environment.  If  the  bee  makes  a  visible  movement  in  re- 
sponse to  a  stimulus  arising  in  its  environment,^  that  visible 
movement  and  nothing  else  is  of  value  in  forming  a  conclu- 
sion. If  there  is  a  movement  or  other  response  inside  the 
animal  or  otherwise  invisible,  or  if  the  bee  perceives  the 
stimulus  but  does  not  move  in  response,  then  the  observer 
has  a  negative  result.     It  is  frequent  in  bee  literature  to  find 

1  The  environmental  factor  may  be  inside  or  outside  the  hive,  or  even 
inside  or  outside  the  individual  bee.  For  example,  pathogenic  micro- 
organisms or  irritating  foods  are  inside  but  not  part  of  the  animal  and  are 
therefore  environmental  factors. 


36  Beekeeping 

the  words  "think,"  ''know,"  ''suppose"  and  the  hke  apphed 
to  bees.  As  a  figure  of  speech  such  a  form  of -expression  may 
perhaps  be  admissible,  but  if  used  in  its  absolute  sense  then 
it  is  not  warranted.  It  would  result  in  a  marked  diminution 
of  the  literature  on  bees,  and  a  great  improvement  therein, 
if  such  material  could  be  wiped  out  of  existence. 

Danger  from  poor  work: 

There  is  but  one  source  of  erroneous  theory  more  danger- 
ous than  those  mentioned  and  that  is  the  observer  who  makes 
false  observations  and  unwarranted  deductions.  Here  too 
the  bee  has  not  escaped.  Because  of  the  wide  interest  in 
bees  there  has  been  a  demand  for  scientific  information 
concerning  them  and  this  has  induced  several  untrained  or 
poorly  trained  men  to  undertake  observations  on  the  struc- 
ture or  behavior  of  bees,  for  which  they  were  not  equipped. 
Such  work,  being  frequently  presented  in  a  more  popular 
and  attractive  form  than  genuine  scientific  work,  has  had 
much  influence  among  beekeepers  so  that,  in  attempting  to 
present  the  results  of  thorough  work,  it  is  first  often  neces- 
sary to  show  the  inaccuracies  of  work  done  by  unqualified 
writers. 

Advantage  of  experience  in  behavior  investigations. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  our  present  knowledge  of 
the  behavior  of  the  bee  is  complete.  It  is,  in  fact,  woefully 
meager.  It  is  probably  true,  however,  that  a  well-informed 
beekeeper  has  a  wider  and  more  accurate  knowledge  con- 
cerning bees  than  have  many  students  of  animal  behavior 
concerning  the  species  with  which  they  work.  The  intimate 
acquaintance  of  the  beekeeper  with  these  insects  results  in  a 
knowledge  of  their  activities  which,  while  faulty  at  times 
due  to  a  lack  of  training  in  observation,  is  as  a  whole  quite 
accurate.  While  this  information  is  often  fragmentary  and 
is  usually  acquired  mthout  any  special  realization  of  the 
general  principles  of  behavior,  at  the  same  time  the  data 
acquired  through  years  of  contact  with  the  bees  are  perhaps 


The  Colony  and  its  Organization  37 

as  reliable  as  those  obtained  by  the  experimenter  on  other 
species  in  the  course  of  a  relatively  brief  investigation.  A 
new  worker  in  bee  behavior  should  hesitate  before  denying 
the  belief  of  the  beekeeper  until  he  is  sure  of  his  ground. 

Zoological  position  of  the  honeybee. 

The  honeybee  belongs  to  the  order  of  insects  known  as 
Hymenoptera,  to  which  belong  also  many  parasites  of  other 
insects,  the  solitary  and  social  wasps,  ants  and  the  entire 
group  of  bees,  from  the  solitary  species  through  various 
stages  in  the  development  of  the  bee  colony  to  the  honeybee. 
The  honeybee  is  the  highest  of  these  colonial  forms,  highest 
because  most  speciaHzed  in  its  behavior  and  least  able  to 
exist  alone.  Yet,  while  it  is  highly  specialized  in  its  behavior, 
it  is  not  so  strikingly  modified  in  its  structure  as  are  some  of 
the  other  Hymenoptera,  such  as  the  Ichneumonidse.  Among 
the  Hymenoptera  there  are  three  groups  of  social  insects, 
wasps,  ants  and  bees,  and  the  type  of  colony  found  in  these 
three  groups  is  fundamentally  the  same.  The  only  other 
true  colonial  insects  are  the  termites,  "white  ants,"  of  a 
distinct  order  and  with  a  quite  different  t5^e  of  colony. 

The  genus  Apis  to  which  the  honeybee  belongs  also  in- 
cludes the  species  indica,  florea,  dorsata  and  zonata,  all  of 
which  are  natives  of  the  far  East  and  none  of  which  is  as 
useful  to  man  as  the  species  mellifica}  These  are  briefly 
discussed  in  Chapter  IX. 

1  One  of  the  cases  of  confusion  originating  from  the  application  of  the 
law  of  priority  in  scientific  nomenclature  is  the  attempted  change  of  the 
name  of  the  honeybee  from  mellifica,  by  which  it  has  been  known  for  so 
many  years,  to  mellifera.  In  the  10th  edition  of  Linnaeus'  "Systema 
Naturae"  (1758),  the  boundary  of  the  prehistoric  for  the  taxonomist,  the 
name  mellifera  was  used,  while  Linnaeus  himself  used  mellifica  in  later 
years.  The  name  m,ellifica  is  found  in  a  vast  literature,  it  is  the  scientific 
name  by  which  the  bee  is  known  to  most  zoologists  and  beekeepers,  the 
name  which  Linnaeus  preferred  and,  last  but  not  least,  it  is  a  correctly 
descriptive  name.  It  should  be  recognized  in  taxonomy,  as  well  as  in 
civic  legislation,  that  a  law  to  be  effective  must  be  backed  by  public  senti- 
ment. It  might  therefore  with  propriety  be  suggested  to  the  taxonomic 
purists  that  they  cultivate  public  sentiment  by  allowing  the  zoologist, 
dealing  in  things  not  names  of  things,  to  live  in  peace  among  his  old  friends. 


38  Beekeeping 

Bees  not  domestic  animals. 

Bees  have  been  kept  by  man  from  an  early  stage  in  the 
development  of  human  civilization,  yet  it  cannot  be  said 
that  they  are  domesticated.  In  all  of  their  activities,  bees 
under  the  care  of  man  do  not  differ  from  bees  in  a  wild  state. 
The  bee  has  been  modified  by  breeding  in  various  ways 
but,  in  so  far  as  the  natural  instincts  are  concerned,  it  is 
doubtful  whether  any  appreciable  change  has  been  brought 
about  and  in  the  greater  number  of  phases  of  bee  life  no 
change  has  even  been  attempted.  An  escaping  swarm  takes 
up  its  abode  in  a  hollow  tree  and  the  bees  are  often  then 
spoken  of  as  ''wild,"  but  this  adjective  is  just  as  appUcable 
to  the  bees  in  the  apiary.  Certain  animal  trainers  become 
proficient  in  handling  savage  animals  through  their  knowl- 
edge of  the  ways  of  these  beasts.  Similarly  the  beekeeper, 
by  studying  the  behavior  of  his  bees,  comes  to  know  their 
habits  and  is  governed  by  this  knowledge.  This  comparison 
of  bees  and  wild  animals  must  be  construed  not  as  intended 
to  inspire  fear  in  the  uninitiated  but  to  point  out  that  the 
beekeeper  actually  is  deaHng  with  animals  unmodified  in 
their  instincts  by  their  long  association  with  man.  By  the 
proper  use  of  smoke  and  especially  by  the  way  the  colony  is 
handled,  the  beekeeper  can  seemingly  do  with  his  bees  as  he 
pleases.  The  fact  is,  however,  that  he  cannot  overstep  the 
bounds  set  by  the  instincts  of  these  animals.  It  is  therefore 
an  incorrect  conception  of  the  ability  of  the  beekeeper  to 
state,  as  did  Langstroth,  that  bees  are  capable  of  being 
tamed.  In  view  of  these  facts,  the  necessity  of  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  bee  activities  is  most  evident. 

Necessity  of  colonial  life. 

Bees  cannot  live  alone.  Their  structure  and  instincts  fit 
them  for  life  in  a  colony  or  community,  where  the  various 
duties  are  divided  among  the  individuals  according  to  struc- 

Many  zoologists  refuse  to  take  taxonomy  seriously  and  there  seems  every 
reason  for  disregarding  its  laws  in  the  present  case. 


The  Colony  and  its  Organization  39 

tural  fitness  and  age.  While  an  individual  worker  bee  may 
live  if  forcibly  isolated  from  its  mates,  it  cannot  reproduce 
itself,  fails  to  care  for  itself  adequately  and  soon  dies.  Most 
insects  have  the  ability  to  hibernate  in  winter  but  the  honey- 
bee seems  to  have  lost  that  ability.  Since  at  low  tempera- 
tures the  bee  becomes  numb  and  finally  dies,  it  must  have 
the  ability  to  make  its  own  environment,  so  far  as  tempera- 
ture is  concerned.  This  makes  a  colony  necessary  in  winter 
so  that  the  bees  may  mutually  and  collectively  warm  each 
other.  Efficiency,  if  not  necessity,  demands  that  the  work 
of  the  colony  be  divided  and  such  a  division  of  labor  tends  to 
develop  into  a  condition  demanding  the  maintenance  of  the 
colony.  The  honeybee  is  further  modified  for  the  defense  of 
the  colony  rather  than  of  the  individual.  The  barbed  sting 
is  used  but  once  and  is  more  effective  because  it  is  left  behind 
while  the  former  owner  dies.  Such  a  weapon  of  defense  is  of 
no  service  to  the  individual. 

Size  of  the  colony. 

This  varies  according  to  the  season,  the  smallest  number 
being  usually  found  at  the  close  of  the  winter  in  the  North, 
when  the  number  may  be  reduced  to  10,000  or  even  much 
less.  At  the  height  of  the  season,  the  number  may  reach 
70,000,  and  while  a  larger  number  may  be  possible  it  is  unu- 
sual. Swarms  sometimes  issue  which  contain  35,000  individ- 
uals. Such  numbers  usually  surprise  the  uninitiated.  It  is 
not,  however,  necessary  for  bees  to  exist  in  such  large  numbers 
to  constitute  a  colony.  A  mere  handful  of  bees  (perhaps  200) 
may  constitute  a  small  colony  (usually  called  a  nucleus  ^)  and 
if  favorable  conditions  were  to  continue  such  a  nucleus  would 
become  a  full-sized  colony. 

TYPES   OF   INDIVIDUALS   IN   A   COLONY 

A  normal  colony  at  the  height  of  the  summer  season  of 
activity  is  composed  of  three  kinds  of  individuals,  (1)  the 

^  The  unusually  small  colonies  are  known  among  beekeepers  as  "baby 
nuclei." 


40 


Beekeeping 


queen  (Fig.  34,  6),  of  which  there  is  normally  only  one,  the 
mother  of  all  the  other  bees  of  the  colony  (except  just  after  a 


Fig.    34.  —  The   honeybee 


queen ; 


Irone.      Slightly 


new  queen  has  been  reared),  (2)  thousands  of  workers  (Fig. 
34,  a)  or  sexually  undeveloped  females  which  normally  lay 
no  eggs  but  do  all  the  other  work  and  (3)  many  drones  (Fig. 

34,  c)  or  males,  often  removed 
or  restricted  in  numbers  by  the 
beekeeper,  whose  only  function 
is  to  mate  with  young  queens. 
These  three  types  of  adult  in- 
dividuals are  easily  recognizable 
even  by  a  novice  by  differences 
in  the  size  of  the  various  parts  of 
the  body.  In  addition  to  the 
adult  bees,  there  are  normally 
found  during  the  active  season 
all  stages  of  developing  bees 
(Fig.  35). 


Fig.  35.  —  The  honeybee:  a, 
egg ;  h,  young  larva ;  c,  old 
larva  ;  d,  pupa.     Enlarged. 


Queen. 

There    is    normally    but    one 
queen,  the  largest  individual  in 


The  Colony  and  its  Organization  41 

the  colony.  She  has  for  her  sole  duty  the  laying  of  eggs  and 
all  the  individuals  normally  develop  from  eggs  laid  by  her. 
They  are  deposited  at  the  bases  of  cells  of  the  comb  in  that 
portion  of  the  nest  devoted  to  the  rearing  of  brood,  the  brood 
nest.  The  eggs  are  fastened  to  the  cell  base  by  the  poste- 
rior (future  caudal  end  of  the  larva)  end  by  means  of  a  secre- 
tion of  the  queen.  The  ^umber  of  eggs  laid  by  the  queen  ^ 
varies  from  a  few  daily  in  early  spring  and  late  fall  in  the 
northern  regions  to  about  1500-2000  a  day  at  the  height  of 
the  egg-laying  season.  Under  special  conditions,  usually 
artificially  produced  by  the  beekeeper,  she  may  lay  as  many 
as  4500  to  5000  eggs  a  day  and  maintain  this  rate  for  several 
days.  The  weight  of  the  maximum  number  that  can  be  laid 
in  a  day  is  equal  to  about  twice  the  weight  of  the  queen  at 
any  time  during  the  period,  indicating  a  marvelous  rapidity 
in  metabolism. 

The  queen  is  not,  as  her  name  would  indicate,  the  ruler  of 
the  colony.  It  has  for  ages  been  known  that  there  is  one 
large  individual  in  the  colony  and  the  ancients  gave  the 
name  ''king"  to  this  supposed  ruler.  When  it  was  learned 
that  the  supposed  monarch  laid  eggs  it  became  necessary  to 
change  the  name.     It  is  now  known  that  the  queen  is  men- 

1  In  1903,  the  author  had  occasion  to  study  the  egg-laying  of  normal 
queens.  Queens  were  introduced  to  a  small  colony  in  an  observatory  hive 
on  an  empty  comb.  These  queens  usually  deposited  about  four  or  some- 
times six  eggs  a  minute,  passing  quickly  from  one  cell  to  another.  The 
abdomen  is  inserted  in  the  cell,  the  legs  are  braced  firmly  on  the  edges  of 
adjacent  cells  and  the  wings  are  placed  flat  against  the  edges  of  cells  to  the 
rear.  During  egg-laying,  the  queen  is  often  surrounded  by  a  circle  of 
worker  bees  with  their  heads  toward  her,  rubbing  her  with  their  antennae. 
Frequently  this  rapid  egg-laying  is  continued  without  interruption  for 
20  to  25  minutes  and  at  times  for  a  longer  period.  There  then  is  usually  a 
resting  period,  often  of  about  five  minutes,  during  which  time  the  queen  is 
fed  by  the  workers.  Whenever  the  queen  comes  to  rest,  she  is  surrounded 
by  a  circle  of  workers  and,  as  she  walks  over  the  comb,  each  bee  turns  to- 
ward her  when  she  gets  within  half  an  inch.  This  is  probably  a  response 
to  the  stimulus  of  odor. 

Some  curious  traditions  have  arisen  about  this  circle  around  the  queen, 
one  of  the  most  interesting  being  the  claim  that  there  are  always  twelve, 
the  number  being  associated  with  the  twelve  apostles.  The  turning  toward 
the  queen  is  often  ascribed  to  the  affection  of  the  workers  for  her,  but  this 
is  probably  as  well  grounded  as  the  tradition  of  there  being  always  twelve. 


42  Beekeeping 

tally  less  highly  developed  than  the  workers  and  that,  to 
some  degree,  the  workers  determine  the  number  of  eggs  to 
be  laid  and  otherwise  determine  the  queen's  activities. 

The  ovaries  of  the  queen  (Fig.  92)  are  highly  developed,  as 
is  necessary  for  her  specialized  function,  and  because  of  this 
development  the  abdomen  is  greatly  elongated.  Her  legs 
(Fig.  81)  are  not  specially  modified  as  are  those  of  the  workers 
and  the  ovipositor  is  curved  and  smooth  and  has  attached  to 
it  a  poison  sac  ^  and  functions  as  a  sting.  Whether  it  also 
assists  in  egg-laying  is  not  determined.  The  eyes  (Fig.  69) 
are  much  like  those  of  the  workers,  the  mandibles  are  notched 
and  proportionately  large,  the  head  is  not  so  elongated  as 
that  of  the  worker  and  is  somewhat  smaller.  The  antennae 
have  twelve  segments,  hke  those  of  the  worker. 

Mating  normally  takes  place  but  once  when  the  queen  is 
from  five  to  eight  days  old,  the  time  differing  slightly  in 
different  races  and  being  influenced  also  by  conditions  of  the 
weather.  There  is  reason  to  think  that  some  queens  mate 
more  than  once,  but  always  before  laying  eggs.  Mating 
never  occurs  in  the  hive  but  on  the  wing  and  the  queen  re- 
ceives a  supply  of  spermatozoa  (male  sex  cells),  millions  in 
number,  which  are  stored  in  her  spermatheca  (Fig.  92)  and 
remain  functional  during  the  life  of  the  queen  or  until  they 
are  exhausted.  Egg-laying  commonly  begins  two  days  after 
mating.  The  queen  often  lives  three  or  four  years  but  a  few 
exceptional  cases  are  recorded  of  queens  living  seven  years. 
The  life  of  the  queen  seems  to  depend  somewhat  on  the  num- 
ber of  eggs  which  she  lays.  The  queen,  when  she  fails  in  egg- 
laying,  is  superseded  by  a  young  queen  reared  by  the  workers. 


1  On  one  occasion  the  author  was  stung  by  a  virgin  queen.  While  it 
was  doubtless  his  own  fault,  this  is  an  experience  that  comes  to  but  few 
beekeepers.  This  was  in  the  early  days  of  his  beekeeping  experience  and 
that  there  was  a  poison  sac  at  the  other  end  of  the  sting  was  attested  by  a 
goodly  swelling.  The  queen  was  seemingly  uninjured.  This  occurred  in 
the  apiary  of  the  A.  I.  Root  Co.,  Medina,  Ohio  and,  by  a  strange  coinci- 
dence, E.  R.  Root  received  a  letter  the  same  day  from  a  western  beekeeper 
who  had  a  similar  experience  and  who  considered  it  rare  enough  to  be  worthy 
of  publication. 


The  Colony  and  its  Organization  43 

While  there  is  usually  but  one  queen  in  the  colony,  it  some- 
times happens  that  two  are  found,  usually  mother  and 
daughter  at  the  time  of  supersedure.  Records  of  this  kind 
are  not  infrequent  but  usually  each  observer  thinks  that  his 
observation  is  unique,  v.  Buttel-Reepen  ^  claims  that  there 
are  usually  two  brood-nests.  He  records  one  case  in  which 
this  was  not  true  and  several  American  beekeepers  have 
recorded  the  same  thing.  The  specialization  which  normally 
permits  but  one  egg-producing  female  is  not  well  understood 
nor  do  we  know  why  a  queen  usually  attempts  to  kill  any 
rivals  (except  under  swarming  conditions).  Recently,  Al- 
exander 2  has  advocated  the  use  of  two  queens  for  rapid  up- 
building of  the  colony  in  the  spring  and  he  brought  this  about 
by  a  special  method  of  introduction.  He  records  that  usually 
but  one  remains  in  the  fall. 

Workers. 

The  larger  number  of  bees  in  the  colony  are  females  whose 
sexual  organs  are  undeveloped  and  which  are  structurally 
modified  in  other  ways.  These  are  justly  called  worker  bees. 
These  bees  feed  the  growing  larvae,  clean,  guard  and  venti- 
late the  hive,  build  comb,  gather  nectar,  pollen,  water  and 
propolis  and,  in  fact,  do  all  the  work  of  the  hive,  except  that 
normally  they  lay  no  eggs  (p.  187). 

The  ovaries  are  small  and  there  is  no  spermatheca.  The 
mandibles  (Fig.  70)  are  not  notched  as  in  the  queen,  the  legs 
(Fig.  81)  are  variously  modified,  the  third  pair  being  modi- 
fied for  the  carrying  of  pollen.  The  ventral  plates  of  the 
last  four  visible  segments  of  the  abdomen  are  modified  on 
the  anterior  edge  to  form  wax  glands  (Fig.  53)  from  which 
the  wax  used  in  comb  building  is  secreted.  The  sting  (Fig. 
83)  is  straight  and  barbed.  The  antennae  have  12  segments. 
The  tongue  is  longer  than  in  the  queen  or   drones.     The 

1  V.  Buttel-Reepen,  H.,  1900.  Sind  die  Bienen  Reflex-maschinen  ?  (Eng. 
trans.,  p.  10.) 

2  Alexander,  E.  W.,  1907.  A  plurality  of  queens  in  a  colony,  without 
perforated  zinc.  Gleanings  in  Bee  Culture,  XXXV,  pp.  1136-1138. 
See  also  p.  1496  and  Vol.  XXXVI,  p.  1135. 


44  Beekeeping 

honey  stomach  (Fig.  60)  is  well  developed.  The  workers  never 
mate  with  the  drones  and  lay  eggs  only  under  abnormal 
circumstances,  which  are  discussed  under  Chapter  VIII. 

Speaking  in  general  terms,  the  length  of  life  of  worker  bees 
is  measured  not  so  much  by  days  or  weeks  as  by  the  amount 
of  work  which  they  do.  During  the  period  when  nectar  is 
being  gathered  abundantly,  they  literally  work  themselves 
to  death  and  the  population  of  the  colony  is  appreciably 
decreased  unless  brood  is  being  reared  heavily.  During 
such  a  period,  the  average  length  of  life  of  worker  bees  is 
barely  six  weeks,  while  in  periods  when  less  work  is  necessary 
the  life  is  lengthened.  Those  bees  which  emerge  in  the  early 
autumn  are  the  ones  which  live  until  the  following  spring. 
During  the  active  season,  the  majority  of  worker  bees  die 
outside  the  hive,  failing  to  return  with  the  last  load.  Small 
wonder  that  in  addition  to  their  other  burdens  they  must 
sometimes  serve  as  examples  of  industry  ! 

Drones. 

The  males  of  the  bee  are  known  by  this  name.  The  use  of 
the  word  drone,  meaning  a  lazy  person,  arose  from  the  name 
of  the  male  bee,  and  it  may  be  re-apphed  to  them  as  fitting. 
They  are  not  a  useful  part  of  the  colony  organization  in  the 
routine,  for  they  do  none  of  the  work  of  the  hive  nor  do  they 
assist  in  gathering.  The  only  function  of  a  drone  is  that  of 
mating  with  a  young  (virgin)  queen  and  in  this  act  it  dies. 
Drones  are  heavy  consumers  of  stores  and  are  not  in  favor 
among  beekeepers,  so  that  their  numbers  are  greatly  reduced 
in  the  modern  apiary.  This  is  done  either  by  restricting  the 
number  of  cells  in  which  they  may  be  reared  or  by  trapping 
them  after  they  emerge  as  adults. 

The  drone  is  a  large  individual,  exceeding  even  the  queen 
in  girth  of  thorax.^    The  compound  eyes  (Fig.  69)  are  so 

» This  fact  enables  the  beekeeper  to  trap  out  drones  by  means  of  the 
Alley  traps  (Fig.  30),  which  have  openings  -j^j^  of  an  inch  wide, 
through  which  workers  can  pass  but  which  are  not  large  enough  for  most 
drones  and  queens  because  of  their  larger  thoraces. 


The  Colony  and  its  Organization  45 

large  that  they  meet  on  top  of  the  head,  forcing  the  ocelli 
(simple  eyes,  O,  Fig.  69)  down  on  the  front  nearer  the  bases 
of  the  antennae.  The  legs  (Fig.  81)  have  no  pollen  baskets. 
The  wax  glands  are  missing,  and  there  is  no  sting  (this 
being  a  strictly  female  organ,  a  modified  ovipositor). 
There  is  one  more  segment  visible  in  the  abdomen  than 
in  the  female  and  the  abdomen  is  larger  and  blunt  at 
the  end.  A  row  of  prominent  hairs  is  present  on  the  dorsal 
side  of  the  abdomen. 

In  the  early  spring  when  brood-rearing  begins,  the  first 
eggs  laid  by  the  queen  ordinarily  develop  into  workers  and, 
as  the  colony  becomes  more  populous  and  the  weather  mod- 
erates, drones  rapidly  appear.  They  may  be  fairly  abun- 
dant, if  the  beekeeper  does  not  reduce  their  number,  up  to 
the  close  of  the  honey-flow,  but  at  that  time  the  workers 
drive  them  from  the  colony.  The  first  indication  of  this 
exodus  is  to  see  them  in  nimibers  on  the  bottom  board  and 
soon  workers  will  be  seen  leaving  the  entrance  carrying  the 
heavy  drones,  with  the  base  of  a  wing  grasped  by  the  man- 
dibles. They  are  dropped  a  hundred  feet  or  more  from  the 
hive  and  usually  fail  to  return.  If  they  do  return  the  pro- 
cess is  repeated.^  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  drones 
are  first  starved  and  then  carried  out  when  they  become 
weak.  They  are  rarely  stung  to  death.  This  slaughter  of 
the  drones  is  best  seen  in  localities  where  the  honey-flow 
stops  abruptly.  In  queenless  colonies,  drones  are  not  re- 
moved and  cases  are  reported  of  such  colonies  retaining 
them  until  well  into  winter.  Drones  usually  do  not  fly  until 
over  a  week  old  but  they  are  probably  functionally  developed 
earlier,  for  the  spermatozoa  are  developed  in  the  pupa. 

The  drones  are  seemingly  not  so  fundamentally  members 
of  a  single  colony  as  are  females.  They  may  be  placed  in 
any  colony  without  being  molested  and  appear  to  enter 
anywhere  without  challenge  until  the  time  of  the  slaughter. 


J  It  is  not  so  usually  recognized  that  old  workers  are  sometimes  treated 
in  the  same  manner. 


46  Beekeeping 

Brood. 

The  developmental  stages  of  bees  (Fig.  35)  are  discussed 
in  a  later  chapter  (p.  93)  and,  for  our  present  purpose,  it  is 
necessary  only  to  present  a  general  statement  concerning 
the  numbers  of  individuals  in  these  developmental  stages 
in  the  colony.  In  the  earliest  stages  of  brood-rearing  (in 
late  winter  in  the  North),  the  queen  lays  only  a  few  eggs  a 
.day  and  the  number  increases  to  1500  or  more  a  day  in  an 
average  colony.  In  exceptional  cases,  however,  this  may  be 
exceeded  until  there  are  in  the  combs  at  one  time  as  many  as 
40,000  developing  bees  in  all  stages,  and  possibly  of  all  three 
kinds  of  bees.  Incidentally,  this  gives  some  basis  for  an 
estimate  of  the  death  rate  of  the  adult  bees  of  the  colony. 
If  bees  emerge  from  the  comb  at  the  rate  of  1500  a  day  dur- 
ing a  honey-flow,  the  population  of  the  colony  is  not  notic- 
ably  increased,  indicating  that  1500  or  more  bees  from  that 
colony  are  dying  daily.  In  the  spring  when  the  bees  are 
working  less  in  gathering  nectar,  the  population  increases 
rapidly,  indicating  a  much  lower  death  rate.  Truly,  bees 
are  creatures  of  a  day. 

NATURAL   NEST 

In  a  wild  state,  the  bee  colony  lives  in  a  hollow  tree  or 
cavity  in  the  rocks,  although  they  thrive  in  the  artificial 
hive  provided  by  the  beekeeper.  An  examination  of  a  wild 
colony  will  assist  in  the  understanding  of  various  manipu- 
lations and  hive  arrangements.  The  combs  which  form 
their  abode  are  composed  of  wax  secreted  by  the  workers 
(p.  108).  The  horizontal,  hexagonal  cells  of  the  two  vertical 
layers  constituting  each  comb  have  interplaced  ends  on  a 
common  septum  (Fig.  36).  In  the  cells  of  these  combs  are 
reared  the  developing  workers  and  drones,  honey  and  pollen 
also  being  stored  in  such  cells.  These  combs  hang  from  the 
top  of  the  cavity  and  are  frequently  also  attached  to  the 
sides.     They  are  rarely  built  upward  from  a  lower  support. 

The  cells  built  naturally  are  not  all  of  the  same  size.     The 


The  Colony  and  its  Organization 


47 


ones  in  which  worker  bees  are  reared  (worker  cells)  are  about 
one-fifth  of  an  inch  across  and  those  used  for  rearing  drones 
(drone  cells)  are  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 


Fig.  36.  —  Structure  of  comb  :  a,  vertical  section  at  top  of  comb ;  b,  ver- 
tical section  showing  transition  from  worker  to  drone  cells ;  c,  horizon- 
tal section  at  side  of  comb  showing  end-bar  of  frame ;  d,  horizontal 
section  of  worker  brood  cells ;  e,  diagram  showing  transition  cells. 
Slightly  reduced. 


The  cells  used  in  storing  honey  are  usually  of  the  larger  size 
while  pollen  is  ordinarily  stored  in  worker  cells.  The  storage 
cells  are  less  regular  and  as  a  rule  slope  upward  at  the  outer 
end.     The  side  walls  are  not  all  at  right  angles  to  the  midrib 


48 


Beekeeping 


(the  common  septum)  but  on  all  the  edges  of  the  comb  there 
may  often  be  noticed  a  sloping  of  the  outer  ends  of  the  cell 
walls  toward  the  edge  of  the  comb  (Fig.  36,  c).  Where  drone 
and  worker  cells  join,  the  bees  overcome  the  lack  of  conform- 
ity by  building  transition  cells  (Fig.  36,  6  and  e.  Fig.  37)  of 
irregular  shape.  Such  cells  usually  cannot  be  used  for  brood- 
rearing.  Attention  should  perhaps  be  drawn  to  the  differ- 
ence between  vertical  and  horizontal  sections  of  comb  (Fig. 
36,  a,  h  and  d).     An  examination  of  a  comb  will  show  these 

illustrations  to  be 
correct,  although 
many  authors  of 
books  on  bees 
persist  in  labeling 
drawings  like  Fig. 
36,  d  as  vertical 
sections.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  ir- 
regular transition 
cells,  the  cells  at 
the.  junction  of 
the  comb  to  its 
support  are  quite 
irregular. 

The  combs  of 
the  natural  nest 
are  often  not  straight  but  are  bent  and  curved  in  various 
ways.  The  several  combs  may  be  parallel  or,  if  this  is 
not  the  case,  the  irregular  spaces  may  be  filled  with  short 
combs.  Notwithstanding  the  irregularity  of  the  whole 
comb,  individual  cells  of  the  comb  are  commonly  quite 
uniform.  This  regularity  has  been  greatly  overestimated, 
however.  Reaumur  went  so  far  as  to  advise  that  the 
width  of  a  cell  be  adopted  as  a  legal  unit  of  measure,  but 
even  a  cursory  examination  of  naturally  built  comb  will 
show  how  impractical  this  would  have  been.  There  are  also 
in  bee-lore  traditions  of  the  marvelous  accuracy  with  which 


Fig.  37. 


Piece  of  new  comb  showing  transition 
cells. 


The  Colony  and  its  Organization 


49 


bees  form  the  angles  of  the  side  walls  and  those  of  the  side 
walls  with  the  base.  It  has  been  stated  that  the  comb  is 
built  with  such  accuracy  that  the  maximum  capacity  and 
strength  are  obtained  with  the  minimum  expenditure  of  wax. 
Miraldi  and  Koenig  vied  with  each  other  in  the  supposed 
accuracy  of  their  measurements  of  the  various  angles  and  in 
their  calculations  of  the  greatest  economy  of  wax.  While 
it  would  be  a  marvelous  accomplishment  if  bees  were  able  to 
build  so  accurately,  it  is  per-  ^^, 

haps  more  marvelous  that  they 
can  adapt  their  cells  to  their 
needs.  It  need  scarcely  be 
said  that  the  formerly  sup- 
posed accuracy  is  not  actual.^ 
In  addition  to  the  horizon- 
tally placed  hexagonal  cells, 
there  are  found  on  the  combs 
at  certain  times  cells  of  a  differ- 
ent type.  These  hang  verti- 
cally from  the  combs  and  are 
used  for  rearing  queens  (Fig. 

38).  They  are  circular  rather  than  hexagonal,  are  larger 
than  the  other  cells  and  the  outer  surface  is  rough  and 
pitted,  somewhat  resembling  a  peanut. 


Fig.    38.  —  Queen 


Natural 


Contents  of  the  cells. 

As  previously  stated,  the  cells  of  the  comb  are  used  for  the 
rearing  of  brood  and  for  the  storage  of  honey  and  pollen, 
each  use  being  in  a  sense  more  or  less  restricted  to  cells 
in  definite  locations.  As  the  larvae  (p.  100)  reach  the  age 
when  food  is  no  longer  taken,  they  are  sealed  over  with  a 
characteristic  capping  (Fig.  39),  and  when  a  cell  is  filled  with 
ripened  honey  it  too  is  sealed,  but  with  a  different  capping 


1  Under  manipulation,  the  size  and  regularity  of  the  cells  are  controlled 
by  the  use  of  comb-foundation,  sheets  of  pure  beeswax  on  which  the  midrib 
is  impressed  (p.  28  ).  Even  when  this  is  used,  a  sloping  of  the  side  walls 
of  the  cells  toward  the  outer  margin  of  the  combs  may  often  be  observed. 


50 


Beekeeping 


(Fig.  40).  The  cells  containing  pollen  are  usually  not  en- 
tirely filled  and,  unless  they  are  also  used  for  the  storage  of 
honey,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  the  pollen  is  not  covered. 

While  the  usual  conception  of  the  use  of  the  combs  includes 
only  the  uses  just  mentioned,  the  cells  actually  have  an  im- 
portant use  as  places  for  adult  bees.  In  winter  the  bees 
normally  form  their  cluster  over  cells  containing  no  honey 
and  adult  bees  crawl  into  the  empty  cells,  filUng  every  one 
_^  within    the    space 

occupied  by  the 
cluster.  They  are 
thus  able  to  form 
a  much  more  com- 
pact mass,  the  out- 
side of  the  cluster 
being  essentially  a 
solid  wall  of  bees. 
During  the  active 
season,  bees  often 
crawl  into  the 
empty  cells,  but 
their  function  dur- 
ing this  time  is 
not  clear,  except 
that  by  this  means 
cells  are  prepared  to  receive  eggs.  It  has  been  suggested 
that  many  of  these  bees  are  ''sleeping,"  but  how  one  may 
determine  this  has  not  been  explained. 

Arrangement  of  the  nest. 

There  is  to  be  observed  in  a  natural  colony  a  definite  and 
virtually  constant  arrangement  of  the  contents  of  the  combs. 
During  the  active  season,  the  brood  occupies  an  approxi- 
mately spherical  spax;e  involving  several  combs  at  the  lower 
part  of  the  center  of  the  comb  mass.  This  space  may  be 
shifted  or  restricted  by  excessive  stores  of  honey.  Around 
this,  on  the  sides  and  above,  are  cells  of  pollen  and  beyond 


Fig.  39.  —  Cappings  of   brood 
pings  are  over  drone  pupae. 


the  larger  cap- 
Natural  size. 


The  Colony  and  its  Organization  51 

these  are  the  honey  stores,  chiefly  to  the  back  of  the  nest. 
Drone  cells  are  most  often  found  in  the  lower  corners  of 
combs.  This  typical  plan  may  be  variously  modified  if  the 
nest  is  of  peculiar  shape. 

In  natural  comb-building,  bees  build  for  the  immediate 
present,  with  no  evidence  of  a  plan  for  the  needs  of  the  future. 
When  comb-building  begins,  worker  cells  are  built  so  long  as 
the  queen  continues  promptly  to  lay  eggs  in  the  new  cells. 
A  queenless  colony  builds  storage  cells  (drone-cell  size).  If 
the  colony  is  rather  weak  and  can  care  for  only  a  little  brood, 
the  bees  soon  begin  to  build  storage  cells  and  this  also  occurs 
if  the  queen  is  a  poor  layer.  In  a  nucleus,  however,  only 
worker  cells  are  built.  If  nectar  is  coming  in  abundantly 
they  construct  storage  cells.  It  may  thus  happen  that  some 
of  the  combs  near  the  center  of  the  brood  nest  contain  a 
superabundance  of  cells  suitable  only  for  the  rearing  of  drones 
or  for  the  storage  of  honey,  and  this  condition  remains  in 
future  years,  regardless  of  the  best  interests  of  the  colony. 

Color  of  the  combs. 

When  first  built,  combs  are  light  yellow  or  almost  white 
in  color,  1  but  after  brood  is  reared  in  the  cells  the  comb  is 
darkened  by  the  ** cocoons"  left  by  the  brood.  These  so- 
called  cocoons  consist  of  larval  skins  and  excreta,  with  the 
possible  addition  of  a  portion  of  the  delicate  silken  cocoon 
(p.  101).  These  deposits  increase  with  successive  rearings  of 
brood  until  the  bases  of  the  cells  are  appreciably  thickened 
while  the  outer  parts  of  the  side  walls  remain  practically 
unmodified  in  size.  If  an  old  comb  is  soaked  in  water  the 
layers  of  deposits  may  be  readily  separated.  The  combs 
are  also  darkened  by  deposits  of  propolis  on  the  cappings  of 
honey  cells  and  the  tops  of  combs  are  often  strengthened  by 
deposits  of  this  substance,  especially  when  the  combs  are 
attached  to  rough  wood,  as  in  a  hollow  log. 

1  The  color  varies  with  the  sources  of  honey  and  pollen  at  the  time  the 
comb  is  being  built.  This  fact  is  nol:  yet  satisfactorily  explained.  It  is 
also  known  that  waxes  vary  similarly  in  certain  physical  properties. 


52  "  Beekeeping 

Protection  of  the  nest. 

Since  the  nest  of  a  colony  is  usually  built  in  a  cavity,  it  is 
thereby  protected,  at  least  partially,  from  extremes  of 
weather  and  from  depredations.  In  addition  to  the  pro- 
tection afforded  by  the  shelter,  the  worker  bees  cover  the 
inside  of  the  cavity  (if  it  is  rough)  with  propolis  (bee  glue). 
This  serves  to  protect  the  colony  from  external  moisture, 
often  strengthens  the  wood  in  a  rotten  tree  and  covers  irreg- 
ularities in  the  surface.  Certain  races  (p.  196)  are  especially 
active  in  reducing  the  size  of  the  entrance  with  the  same 
material  (Fig.  94),  sometimes  adding  wax  to  it.  An  exam- 
ination of  a  cavity  in  a  tree  which  has  been  occupied  by  a 
colony  for  a  considerable  time  will  prove  interesting  in  show- 
ing the  ways  in  which  bees  have  improved  their  abode. 

While  swarms  usually  seek  protection  in  a  cavity,  it  some- 
times happens  that  they  fail  to  do  this  but  build  their  combs 
in  the  open.  Bouvier  ^  has  described  in  detail  the  comb 
architecture  of  such  a  colony  which  survived  the  winter  in 
Paris  but  died  in  March.  Similar  cases  are  reported  fre- 
quently in  the  United  States  but  such  a  colony  fails  to  sur- 
vive cold  winters.  On  one  occasion,  an  open-air  colony  was 
discovered  near  Washington  and  was  moved  to  the  apiary  of 
the  Department  of  Agriculture,  then  located  at  College  Park, 
Maryland  (Fig.  41).  The  colony  defended  itself  from  rob- 
bers and  wasps  during  a  period  when  robbing  was  severe  and 
wasps  were  unusually  abundant,  and  lived  until  nearly  mid- 
winter, when  it  succumbed  during  a  blizzard.  In  general, 
the  combs  of  such  colonies  are  bent  so  that  the  wind  cannot 
blow  directly  through  the  nest,  and  the  edges  of  combs  are 
sometimes  united  with  comb  projections  or  propolis.  This 
ability  to  live  in  the  open  suggests  a  similarity  with  the  giant 
bees  of  India  and  the  PhiUppines  which  normally  build 
unprotected  combs,  the  latter  bees  however  usually  building 
only  a  single  large  comb. 

1  Bouvier,  E.  L.,  1905.  Sur  la  nidification  d'une  colonie  d'abeilles  a 
I'air  libre.  Bui.  soci6t6  philomatique  de  Paris,  Neuv.  s6r.,  VII,  pp.  186- 
206. 


The  Colony  and  its  Organization  53 

Comparison  with  stingless  bees. 

The  arrangement  and  protection  of  the  natural  nest  of  the 
honeybee  may  be  compared  with  the  arrangement  found  in 
the  stingless  bees,  to  which  they  are  closely  related.  These 
bees  do  not  build  double  rows  of  cells  in  their  combs  but  the 
brood  is  reared  in  cylindrical  cells  fused  together  in  single 
layers.  The  pollen  and  honey  are  stored  in  large  spherical 
cells  of  wax.  Several  years  ago,  the  author  had  opportunity 
to  examine  the  nest  of  a  colony  of  these  bees  minutely.  In 
this  particular  species,  the  spherical  cells  for  pollen  and 
nectar  are  about  one  inch  in  diameter.  The  entrance  is 
contracted  and  projects  as  a  funnel  almost  two  inches  out- 
ward. This  funnel  is  evidently  composed  of  propolis  and 
wax  to  which  pellets  of  earth  are  added.  Inside  the  entrance 
are  the  storage  cells  for  pollen  surrounding  the  outer  half  of 
the  group  of  brood  cells.  Back  of  the  brood  cells  and  par- 
tially encircUng  them  are  the  cells  of  honey,  the  honey  in 
this  particular  case  being  well  ripened  and  of  superb  flavor. 
The  contracted  entrance  suggests  a  resemblance  to  the  work 
of  certain  races  of  honeybees  {e.g.  Caucasian,  p.  196)  in  clos- 
ing the  entrance  in  the  autumn,  while  the  general  arrange- 
ment of  the  nest  follows  the  usual  plan  for  the  honeybee 
closely,  except  that  the  pollen  cells  are  between  the  entrance 
and  the  brood. 


CHAPTER  IV 
THE  CYCLE  OF  THE   YEAR 

To  describe  the  various  activities  observed  in  the  bee 
colony  in  its  response  to  changes  in  the  environment,  there 
is  perhaps  no  better  arrangement  of  the  facts  than  to  follow 
such  a  colony  through  the  year,  assuming  that  it  is  normal 
and  unmolested  by  man.  For  convenience,  the  cycle  is 
begun  at  the  close  of  winter.  It  must  of  course  be  understood 
that  any  such  arrangement  is  arbitrary,  since  the  cycle  varies 
in  different  regions  with  differences  in  climate  and  in  the 
sources  of  nectar. 

In  discussing  the  round  of  action,  it  is  customary  among 
American  writers  chiefly  to  discuss  the  phenomena  observed  in 
the  white  clover  region,  and  they  often  fail  to  make  clear  that 
elsewhere  the  course  of  events  may  be  materially  modified. 
The  long  winter  of  the  North  is  a  striking  feature  of  the  year 
and  greatly  influences  the  activities  of  the  bees.  In  this 
region,  too,  all  of  the  seasonal  influences  which  go  to  make 
up  the  year  are  intensified  and  the  proper  control  of  bees  is 
more  difficult.  In  the  discussion  which  follows,  the  events 
typical  of  the  North  must  be  made  rather  prominent  in 
order  to  follow  the  plan  of  arranging  the  facts  to  the  yearly 
cycle,  but  an  effort  is  made  to  include  the  differences  which, 
in  beekeeping  literature,  are  often  attributed  to  the  abused 
term  "locality."  From  the  strong  contrasts  in  seasons  and 
in  bee  activities  observed  near  the  northern  limits  of  the 
region  where  bees  may  be  kept,  there  is  a  gradual  fading  of 
the  boundaries  of  the  seasons  and  a  corresponding  reduction 
in  the  extremes  of  bee  activity  until  we  reach  the  tropics, 
where  every  day  to  the  bees  is  as  the  day  before,  except  for 

54 


Fig.  42.  — Eggs  in  cells  of  the  comb.     Slightly  enlarged. 


Fig.  43.  —  Larvae  in  cells  of  the  comb,  almost  full  grown.     Shghtly 
enlarged. 


The  Cycle  of  the  Year  55 

the  indistinctly  circumscribed  honey-flows  and  for  temporary 
disturbances  in  weather  conditions. 


BROOD-REARING 

A  normal  colony  of  bees  in  good  condition  just  previous 
to  the  beginning  of  the  season's  activity  may  be  assumed  to 
be  broodless  and  to  consist  of  a  mated  queen  and  perhaps 
10,000  or  more  worker  bees.  The  combs  contain  an  adequate 
supply  of  honey  and  stored  pollen.  The  workers  fly  from 
the  hive  whenever  the  days  are  warm  enough,  especially 
after  a  period  of  confinement,  and  with  the  opening  of  the 
earliest  spring  flowers  they  replenish  their  stores  of  honey 
and  pollen.  Previous  to  the  stimulus  of  incoming  nectar, 
however,  the  rearing  of  brood  is  begun.  This  usually  com- 
mences, in  colonies  wintered  out  of  doors,  in  the  coldest 
period  of  the  winter,  in  February  or  even  in  January  in  the 
North,  and  this  fact  indicates  strongly  that  the  beginning 
of  brood-rearing  is  usually  not  due  to  a  rise  in  the  outside 
temperature  or  to  the  procuring  of  nectar  or  pollen,  as  is 
usually  assumed.  It  certainly  is  not  due  to  any  instinctive 
knowledge  of  the  coming  of  spring. 

The  first  eggs  (Fig.  42)  are  laid  in  the  center  of  the  winter 
cluster,  before  it  is  loosened.  They  are  usually  deposited 
in  circular  areas  of  cells  on  adjacent  combs  and,  if  the  queen 
can  pass  around  the  combs  without  leaving  the  cluster,  such 
circles  of  eggs  will  be  found  opposite  each  other  on  the  comb. 
As  breeding  continues,  eggs  are  placed  in  concentric  rings, 
not  only  on  the  middle  comb  but  on  contiguous  combs,  so 
that  the  form  of  the  brood  nest  becomes  approximately 
spherical.  The  development  of  the  brood  (Fig.  35)  will  be 
discussed  in  greater  detail  in  a  later  chapter  (p.  93)  and  it 
will  suffice  here  to  state  that  after  approximately  three  days 
there  hatches  from  the  egg  a  small  worm-like  larva,  pearly- 
white  ^  in  color.    This  is  fed  great  quantities  of  food  by  the 

^  In  the  comb  the  larva  appears  white  but,  if  one  is  removed  from  the 
cell  and  placed  on  white  paper,  a  slight  yellow  or  brown  color  is  evident. 


56  Beekeeping 

workers  so  that  it  grows  nearly  to  fill  the  cell  (Fig.  43)  in  a 
few  days.  It  is  then  capped  over  (Fig.  39)  and  undergoes 
metamorphosis  into  an  adult,  this  transition  stage  being 
known  as  the  pupa.  If  about  two  weeks  after  brood-rearing 
has  begun,  the  central  comb  is  removed,  we  find  the  inner 
circle  of  the  brood  sealed,  surrounding  this  concentric  circles 
of  larvae,  the  smaller  toward  the  outside,  and  in  the  outer- 
most circle  are  recently  laid  eggs.  Similarly  as  other  combs 
are  examined,  the  same  succession  of  brood  is  found  as  we 
go  to  the  outer  lateral  boundaries  of  the  sphere  of  brood. 
As  the  brood  continues  to  develop,  the  innermost  cells  are 
first  emptied  by  the  emergence  ^  of  the  young  adult  bees  and 
the  queen  then  returns  to  the  -center  of  the  sphere  to  deposit 
eggs.  The  emergence  of  the  brood  increases  the  size  of  the 
colony  and  consequently  the  amount  of  brood  that  can  be 
fed  and  protected  is  greater,  especially  since  the  young  bees 
normally  do  most  of  the  work  of  caring  for  the  brood.  Fur- 
thermore, as  the  temperature  of  the  outside  air  rises,  the 
cluster  is  expanded  and  more  brood  can  be  included  in  it. 
Bees  often  attempt  to  rear  more  brood  than  they  can  cover 
in  the  event  of  unusually  cold  weather,  and  if  the  weather 
turns  cold  they  may  contract  the  cluster  and  leave  brood 
exposed  to  die  of  starvation  and  cold.  The  concentric  ar- 
rangement of  the  brood  may  often  be  observed  throughout 
the  breeding  season  (Fig.  44)  but  usually  after  a  time  the 
symmetrical  arrangement  of  early  spring  is  less  conspicuous, 
due  to  irregularities  in  the  combs  or  to  external  conditions 
modifying  the  extent  of  brood-rearing  from  day  to  day.  In 
general,  however,  the  brood  consists  of  concentric  spherical 
layers  of  various  ages.^    The  concentric  arrangement  of  the 

The  content  of  the  intestine  is  often  dark  and  this  may  frequently  be 
seen  through  the  transparent  tissues  as  a  narrow  band  on  the  convex 
side. 

1  Beekeepers  frequently  refer  to  the  emergence  of  young  adult  bees  as 
"hatching."  This,  however,  is  incorrect  and  the  word  should  be  applied 
only  to  the  issuing  of  the  young  larvae  from  the  eggs. 

*  In  a  hive  as  shallow  as  the  Langstroth  the  sphere  is  usually  flattened, 
as  in  Fig.  44. 


The  Cycle  of  the  Year 


57 


pollen   and   honey   about  the  brood  has  been  previously 
described  (p.  50). 

The  first  eggs  laid  develop  into  worker  bees,  but  as  the 
season  advances  eggs  are  laid  in  the  larger  cells  of  the  comb, 
from  which  drones  develop.  The  number  of  drones  and  the 
time  when  they  first  appear  depend  largely  on  the  kind  of 
cells  in  the  comb.  If  there  are  drone  cells  near  the  place 
where  the  cluster  is  formed,  they  are  soon  included  within 
the  limits  of  the  brood  nest,  as  it  expands,  and  drones  appear 
earher  than  if  the  drone  cells  were  at  one  side  of  the  hive. 


i:*^:^ 


Fig.  44,  —  Concentric  arrangement  of  the  brood. 


S^?i 


Brood-rearing  during  the  season. 

The  cycle  of  brood-rearing  has  been  studied  by  Dufour  ^ 
for  the  conditions  prevailing  in  Fontainebleau,  France,  from 
1897  to  1900.  This  was  done  by  measuring  the  extent  of 
the  brood  nest  every  21  days  (worker  brood  requiring  that 
time  to  develop)  and  by  estimating  accurately  the  number 
of  eggs  laid  since  the  previous  measurements.  The  hives 
(Layens)  used  contained  20  frames,^  each  37  cm.  (14.67  in.)  by 

*  Dufour,  Leon,  1901.  Recherches  sur  la  ponte  de  la  reine.  Ann.  de  la 
f^d.  des  soc.  d'apiculture  (France).  Lille:  Le  Bigot  Frferes  (with  L'Api- 
culteur,  1902). 

2  These  hives  are  comparable  to  the  hives  sometimes  used  in  America,, 
to  which  the  name  "long  idea"  is  given.     All  20  frames  are  in  one  hive  body. 


58 


Beekeeping 


31  cm.  (12.3  in.).  To  show  the  course  of  egg-lajdng  during 
the  season,  the  accompanying  table  is  copied  from  this  paper. 
These  observations  were  made  during  1900  on  a  colony  in 
which  the  queen  was  reared  in  1899,  egg-laying  of  this  queen 
having  begun  about  June  17,  1899.  During  the  year  a  total 
of  about  150,000  eggs  were  laid.  The  maximum  egg-laying 
occurred  during  the  period  of  the  chief  honey-flow,  which 
that  year  was  from  June  1  to  12.     The  colony  did  not  swarm. 

Table  I.   Egg-laying  during  an  Entire  Season  —  Dupour 


Date 

Period 

Average 
Laying 

Feb.  26 

Feb.  5-Feb.  26 

135 

March  20 

Feb.  27-Mareh  20 

220 

April  12 

March  22-April  12 

309 

May  3 

April  12-May  3 

1008 

May  23 

May  2-May  23 

1454 

June  14 

May  24- June  14 

1538 

July  5 

June  14-July  5 

1081 

July  26 

July  5- July  26 

668 

Aug.  16 

July  26-Aug.  16 

348 

Sept.  6 

Aug.  16-Sept.  6 

450 

Sept.  27 

Sept.  6-Sept.  27 

83 

In  brief,  the  results  of  Dufour's  work  are  as  follows :  For 
that  locality  and  under  the  conditions  prevaiUng,  the  largest 
average  observed  was  1627  eggs  a  day  (June  10-July  1, 1898). 
The  maximum  occurs  during  a  heavy  honey-flow  or  imme- 
diately after.  A  queen  about  to  be  superseded  may  lay  about 
400  eggs  daily,  while  a  young  queen  may  begin  by  laying 
900  eggs  daily  (these  figures  probably  vary  with  the  time  of 
year).  Artificial  swarming  is  said  greatly  to  diminish  egg- 
laying.  It  must  be  remembered  that  variation  in  climatic 
conditions  and  in  honey-flows  influence  egg-laying  and  the 
results  of  such  work  would  not  be  the  same  everywhere. 
Work  of  this  character  should  be  carried  out  elsewhere. 


The  Cycle  of  the  Year  59 


THE   TEMPERATURE   OF   THE   HIVE 

In  a  study  of  the  activities  of  a  colony  of  bees,  the  question 
of  temperature  must  be  carefully  considered.  Bees  are  cold- 
blooded (poikilothermous)  animals,  that  is,  the  temperature 
of  the  body  of  an  individual  bee  is  variable  and  is  the  same 
or  almost  the  same  as  that  of  the  air  immediately  surround- 
ing the  body.  All  cold-blooded  animals  usually  have  a 
temperature  sUghtly  above  that  of  the  surrounding  medium, 
except  in  the  case  of  animals  having  a  moist  skin  and  sur- 
rounded by  air,  in  which  evaporation  on  the  surface  of  the 
body  may  cause  the  temperature  of  the  body  to  fall  a  little 
below  that  of  the  air.  The  heat  which  raises  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  individual  bee,  and  collectively  of  the  bee  colony, 
above  that  of  the  surrounding  air  is  generated  chiefly  by 
muscular  activity.  The  individual  bee  can  continue  mus- 
cular movements  only  so  long  as  the  temperature  of  the  body 
does  not  fall  below  45°  F.,  but  at  about  this  temperature  it 
loses  its  power  of  movement.  The  highest  temperature  at 
which  bees  can  live  has  not  been  accurately  determined  but 
it  must  be  over  130°  F. 

While  the  individual  bee  does  not  possess  the  abiUty  to 
maintain  a  nearly  uniform  body  temperature,  as  do  warm- 
blooded animals,  the  colony  as  a  whole  shows  some  remark- 
able temperature  changes,  different  from  any  observed  in 
individual  bees  or  in  other  cold-blooded  animals.  Warm- 
blooded animals  maintain  a  fairly  constant  temperature 
which  may  be  either  higher  or  lower  than  that  of  the  sur- 
rounding air.  While  the  colony  of  bees  may  maintain  a 
temperature  either  warmer  or  colder  than  the  surrounding 
air  (colder  than  the  air  outside  the  hive),  the  temperature 
of  the  colony  is  not  constant.  In  warm-blooded  animals, 
most  of  the  heat  is  generated  by  the  processes  of  internal 
combustion  in  the  assimilation  of  food,  augmented  by  heat 
due  to  muscular  activity.  In  the  bee,  the  chief  method  of 
heat  production  is  by  muscular  activity,  with  possibly  some 
additional  heat  from  other  life  processes,  and  the  bee,  unlike 


60  Beekeeping 

a  warm-blooded  animal,  promptly  cools  if  muscular  activity 
ceases  and  the  surrounding  air  is  cool.  The  temperature 
changes  of  other  colonial  insects  have  not  been  studied,  but 
it  would  seem  probable  from  our  present  knowledge  that 
the  honeybee  is  the  only  insect  which  is  able  to  generate 
heat  sufficient  to  maintain  active  movements  without  hiber- 
nation throughout  the  winter  in  the  North. 

The  most  interesting  and  important  phases  of  the  temper- 
ature of  the  bee  colony  are  to  be  observed  in  the  winter 
season  and  this  will  be  discussed  at  the  close  of  this  chapter. 
While  many  observations  have  been  made  on  the  temper- 
ature of  the  bee  colony  during  the  period  of  brood-rearing, 
the  work  has  not  been  done  with  sufficient  detail  so  that  we 
have  little  information  concerning  heat  generation  during 
this  season.  The  foregoing  statement  perhaps  demands 
some  explanation.  If  a  colony  of  bees  is  disturbed,^  its 
temperature  promptly  changes  and  consequently  the  inser- 
tion of  a  mercurial  thermometer  into  the  brood  nest,  or  even 
an  approach  to  the  hive  to  read  a  thermometer  already 
inserted,  may  at  times  produce  abnormal  temperature 
conditions.  Furthermore,  most  of  the  thermometers  used 
are  of  doubtful  accuracy  and  the  slow  action  of  a  mercury 
thermometer  is  an  additional  cause  of  inaccuracy.  It  is 
usually  stated  that  during  brood-rearing  a  temperature  of 
approximately  human  blood  heat  is  maintained  within  the 
cluster  and  that  this  temperature  is  practically  uniform. 
The  uniformity  of  the  temperature  has  been  greatly  over- 
estimated, at  least  in  certain  parts  of  the  season,  and  it  may 
vary  over  several  degrees.  It  rarely  exceeds  97°  F.  How- 
ever, if  the  temperature  of  the  outside  air  exceeds  the  maxi- 
mum hive  temperature,  the  bees  reduce  the  temperature  of 
the  cluster  by  fanning,  causing  a  drop  in  the  temperature 
inside  the  hive  by  evaporation. 

In  the  case  of  other  insects,  the  length  of  the  developmental 
stages  varies  greatly,  according  to  temperature.  Since  the 
bee  colony  virtually  creates  its  own  temperature   environ- 

1  This  is  specially  true  in  winter  when  a  definite  cluster  is  formed. 


The  Cycle  of  the  Year  61 

ment  within  the  brood  nest  during  brood-rearing,  the  de- 
velopmental stages  are  practically  uniform  in  length  of  time. 
This  is  a  great  benefit  to  the  beekeeper,  especially  in  timing 
swarming  and  similar  phenomena  where  queen  cells  are 
concerned.  It  has  been  found  that  if  brood  is  removed  and 
kept  at  a  temperature  lower  than  is  usual  in  the  brood-cham- 
ber, development  continues  but,  as  with  other  insects,  it  is 
retarded. 

One  other  point  regarding  the  hive  temperature  is  impor- 
tant. The  temperature  is  not  uniform  throughout  the  hive 
but  may  vary  over  many  degrees  in  cold  weather.  This  will 
be  explained  in  greater  detail  under  a  discussion  of  bees 
during  winter.  In  any  weather,  however,  the  efforts  of  the 
bees  in  heat  generation  are  confined  to  the  brood  nest  or,  in 
jthe  absence  of  brood,  to  the  cluster,  except  when  wax  is 
being  secreted,  when  a  high  temperature  is  also  maintained 
at  the  point  of  building.  Away  from  the  centers  of  activity, 
however,  the  temperature  is  not  raised  except  by  chance 
muscular  movements  or  by  convection  currents,  but  may  be 
cooled  if  it  is  too  hot.  This  perhaps  explains  the  seemingly 
unreconcilable  records  of  hive  temperatures  during  the 
summer. 

SWARMING  ^ 

Continued  and  increased  breeding,  previously  described 
as  occurring  in  early  summer,  would  result  in  enormous 
colonies  if  the  queen  were  able  to  lay  eggs  with  sufficient 
rapidity  to  meet  the  demands  of  such  a  case.  It  would  not, 
however,  result  in  any  increase  in  the  number  of  colonies. 
Obviously,  it  frequently  happens  that  an  entire  colony  of 
bees  is  destroyed,  in  Nature  as  well  as  in  the  hands  of  the 
beekeeper,  and  the  very  existence  of  the  species  depends  on 
another  method  of  reproduction.  The  colony  life  of  the  bee 
is  so  completely  developed  that  it  is  permissible  to  think  of 
the  individuals  as  merely  '' winged  organs  of  the  colony,"  as 
Maeterlinck  has  expressed  it.  We  now  come  to  the  breed- 
ing of   colonies  or  swarming.     This  process  of   reproduc- 


62 


Beekeeping 


tion  may  be  likened  to  the  simple  fission  or  division  observed 
in  the  protozoa,  by  which  they  increase  in  number. 

Preparation  for  swarming. 

As  the  colony  increases  in  strength,  the  rearing  of  brood 
is  no  longer  confined  to  the  worker  and  drone  cells  but 
special  queen  cells  are  built  (Fig.  45),  in  which  female  larvae 

are  fed  a  specially  prepared  food, 
royal  jelly,  and  in  which  the 
course  of  their  development  is 
so  modified  that  there  result 
queens  with  their  special  organs 
instead  of  worker  bees.  The 
rearing  of  queens  also  occurs  if 
a  colony  becomes  queenless  by 
the  death  or  removal  of  the 
queen,  provided  eggs  or  young 
larvae  are  present,  or  when  a 
queen  is  about  to  be  superseded 
by  a  young  queen  because  she 
fails  in  egg-laying.  Queen  cells 
may  be  built  in  advance  of  the 
laying  of  eggs  in  them  (pre-con- 
structed  cells),  as  is  usually  the 
case  in  swarming,  or  the  cells  may 
be  built  around  small  female  larvae 
which  would  otherwise  become 
workers  (post-constructed  cells),  as  is  necessary  in  queenless 
colonies.  The  eggs  from  which  queens  and  workers  develop 
are  identical,  the  only  known  cause  of  the  difference  in  the 
course  of  their  development  being  the  special  cells  and  the 
food  provided  for  the  developing  queen. 

Issuing  of  the  swarm. 

When  the  larvae  in  the  queen  cells  are  fully  fed,  they  are 
sealed  over  as  are  other  larvae.  At  about  the  time  of  this 
sealing,  the  first  (prime)  swarm  usually  issues,  although  it 


Fig.    45.- 
cells. 


Group    of    queen 
Natural  size. 


The' Cycle  of  the  Year  63 

may  be  delayed  by  inclement  weather.^  Swarming  consists 
of  the  departure  of  the  old  queen  with  part  ^  of  the  workers 
from  the  hive,  leaving  behind  the  brood,  including  the  queen 
cells,  some  adult  bees  and  the  stores,  except  such  honey  as 
the  workers  are  able  to  carry  in  their  honey  stomachs. 
Before  leaving,  the  bees  gorge  themselves  until  the  abdomens 
are  distended  and  are  thus  provided  with  food  for  a  few 
days,  in  case  the  weather  is  inclement.  The  queen  usually 
lays  fewer  eggs  just  before  swarming  than  is  usual  for  that 
season  and  her  abdomen  often  becomes  smaller,  enabling 
her  to  fly  more  easily.  Frequently  for  a  time  before  the 
issuing  of  the  swarm,  the  work  of  the  colony  in  gathering  is 
decreased  and  many  of  the  field  bees  remain  at  home,  thereby 
crowding  the  hive.  The  swarm  usually  issues  on  a  bright 
day  about  mid-day  ^  and  most  of  the  workers  in  the  hive  at 
that  time  leave  with  the  swarm.  Those  in  the  field  at  the 
time  of  swarming  return  to  the  hive  and  do  not  follow  the 
swarm. 

Stimulus  to  leave  the  hive. 

The  stimulus  to  the  act  of  swarming  is  not  understood,  but 
it  has  been  observed  in  hives  with  glass  sides  that  bees  in 
various  parts  of  the  hive  show  signs  of  excitement,  which 
gradually  spreads  throughout  the  hive.  Sometimes  the 
queen  leaves  among  the  first  but  she  usually  remains  inside 
until  a  considerable  number  have  left  the  hive.  Since  a 
swarm  sometimes  issues  without  a  queen,  she  can  scarcely 
be  considered  the  leader.  This  is  also  shown  by  the  fact 
that  when  the  queen  is  caged,  as  a  means  of  swarm  preven- 
tion, the  bees  sometimes  swarm,  leaving  the  queen  in  the  cage. 
When  a  queen  is  disabled  so  that  she  cannot  fly  or  is  detained 

1  Races  of  bees  differ  somewhat  in  the  time  of  swarming.  Italians  tend 
to  swarm  with  the  queen  cells  in  an  earlier  stage  of  development  than  other 
races. 

2  Why  some  go  and  others  remain  is  not  known.  They  are  not  sepa- 
rated according  to  age  nor  duties. 

» Swarms  usually  issue  between  10  a.m.  and  2  p.m.  but  in  warm  sultry 
weather  may  come  out  earlier,  or  quite  late  in  the  afternoon. 


64  Beekeeping 

by  a  queen  trap  (Fig.  30),  the  bees  may  make  several  at- 
tempts to  swarm  and  often  finally  destroy  the  old  queen, 
sometimes  swarming  with  a  virgin  raised  at  this  time. 

As  soon  as  the  bees  leave  the  entrance  there  is  a  striking 
tendency  to  move  upward.  Some  go  upward  within  the 
hive  and  if  it  is  opened  they  pour  out  at  the  top  and  if,  as 
sometimes  happens,  the  queen  goes  up  inside  instead  of  out- 
side, the  swarm  soon  returns  to  the  hive.  In  an  analysis  of 
swarming  this  upward  movement  is  to  be  reckoned  with. 

In  seeking  an  explanation  of  the  stimulus  to  leave  the  hive, 
there  are  some  manipulations  which  produce  similar  results 
and  which  are  of  value  for  purposes  of  comparison.  (1)  In 
transferring  colonies  (p.  245)  from  a  box-hive,  an  empty 
box  is  sometimes  placed  over  the  inverted  box-hive,  which  is 
then  pounded.  This  drumming  causes  the  bees  to  fill  their 
honey  stomachs,  after  which  they  gradually  move  upward 
until  practically  the  entire  colony  is  clustered  in  the  upper 
box  in  the  shape  of  a  swarm.  (2)  In  making  artificial 
swarms  (p.  283)  or  in  the  use  of  the  swarm  box  (p.  422)  for 
starting  artificial  queen  cells,  the  bees  gorge  themselves  and 
later  cluster  like  a  swarm.  (3)  If  bees  are  smoked  exces- 
sively, they  gorge  themselves  and  begin  to  run  (especially 
true  of  black  bees),  usually  in  an  upward  direction.  In  these 
three  examples  the  bees  are  "demoralized";  the  colony  is 
disorganized.  The  bees  usually  do  not  sting  and  most  of 
them  do  not  attempt  to  fly  so  long  as  they  can  proceed  in  the 
desired  direction  on  foot.  They  can  be  moved  to  a  new  loca- 
tion after  these  operations,  in  which  event  practically  none  of 
them  return  to  the  old  location. 

The  same  peculiar  manner  of  leaving  the  hive  may  be 
induced  by  placing  bees  in  a  box  with  a  small  opening.  If  a 
substance  with  a  repelling  odor  is  now  placed  in  the  box, 
the  bees  shoot  out  the  opening  as  in  swarming.  This  manner 
of  exit  may  be  merely  incidental  to  rapidity  of  movement  and 
may  not  be  specially  characteristic.  The  fact  that  move- 
ments can  be  duplicated  does  not  necessarily  imply  similar 
causes. 


Xp 


Fig.  46.  —  A  swarm  cluster.  Fig.  48.  —  Capturing  a  swarm. 


The  Cycle  oj  the  Year  65 

Behavior  of  the  issuing  swarm. 

The  issuing  of  a  swarm  is  one  of  the  most  exciting  and 
interesting  incidents  in  the  apiary.  The  bees  rush  from  the 
hive,  giving  the  observer  the  impression  that  they  are  pursued 
or  "possessed  of  the  devil."  They  appear  intoxicated  with 
the  ''swarm  dizziness"  and  whirl  in  "bacchanal  delight,"  as 
if  drunk  with  joy.  Even  the  beekeeper  becomes  excited. 
The  bees  circle  in  the  air  and  the  whirling  swarm  may  drift 
about  the  apiary  for  a  time.  There  is  an  excitement  in  the 
"swarm  tone"  which  is  infectious. 

It  is  especially  to  be  noted  that  swarming  bees  rarely 
sting,  and  it  is  conmionly  stated  that  they  cannot  sting 
because  their  abdomens  are  distended  with  the  load  of  honey 
in  the  honey  stomach.  This  latter  statement  is  incorrect, 
if  taken  literally,  but  even  the  hardened  beekeeper  finds 
enjoyment  in  walking  into  the  midst  of  the  circling  swarm,  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  he  has  probably  tried  to  prevent  swarm- 
ing, and  he  needs  no  veil  under  such  circumstances. 

Clustering. 

The  swarm  after  a  time  begins  to  settle  on  the  limb  of  a 
tree  or  some  such  support  (Fig.  46)  and  the  excitement  is 
past.  Like  the  issuing  of  the  swarm  from  the  hive,  the 
incentive  to  cluster  is  not  understood.  The  queen  may  be 
the  first  to  aUght,  and  this  seems  quite  natural  since  she  is 
heavy  and  a  poor  flyer  compared  with  the  workers,  but  she  is 
just  as  likely  to  join  the  cluster  after  it  is  partly  formed. 
However,  the  cluster  is  usually  not  formed  if  the  queen  has 
not  accompanied  the  swarm.  One  feature  is  noticeable  in 
the  forming  cluster,  however,  which  perhaps  throws  some 
light  on  the  subject.  It  is  well  known  that  when  bees  are 
thrown  in  front  of  a  hive  the  abdomen  is  raised  and  the  wings 
are  fanned  vigorously.  At  such  a  time  the  dorsal  scent 
organ  (p.  172),  located  on  the  intersegmental  membrane 
between  the  sixth  and  seventh  terga  of  the  abdomen,  is 
exposed  by  the  bending  ventrally  of  the  last  visible  abdominal 
segment.     During  clustering,  the  bees  on  the  outside  of  the 


66  Beekeeping 

mass  expose  this  gland  and  the  wings  are  moved  rapidly  so 
that  it  seems  probable  that  the  odor  which  is  emitted  and 
dispersed  attracts  the  flying  bees  to  the  cluster. 

If  the  cluster  has  been  formed  in  an  inaccessible  place,  the 
beekeeper  often  finds  it  desirable  to  have  the  bees  move  to 
another  support.  The  cluster  will  gradually  move  (more 
readily  upward)  into  the  dark  interior  of  a  box  placed  nearby, 
this  movement  being  more  rapid  if  a  piece  of  comb,  or 
better,  comb  with  brood,  is  placed  inside  the  box  (Fig.  47). 
If  the  queen  has  failed  to  fly  or  has  been  prevented  in  some 
way,  the  swarm  usually  does  not  cluster  but  returns  to  the 
hive,  and  if  a  cluster  does  form  it  usually  breaks  up  in  a  few 
minutes. 

In  a  large  apiary  when  swarms  are  issuing  frequently, 
many  swarms  will  settle  on  one  particular  support.  The 
only  plausible  explanation  for  this  peculiar  action  is  that 
the  support  retains  an  odor  acquired  from  contact  with  the 
swarm  which  acts  as  an  attraction  to  other  bees  in  the  act 
of  swarming.  This  lends  considerable  weight  to  the  theory 
that  clustering  is  a  response  to  an  odor  stimulus.  Bee- 
keepers sometimes  take  advantage  of  this  phenomenon 
and  provide  an  easily  accessible  and  readily  handled  sup- 
port for  the  clusters.  The  swarm  catcher  (Fig.  47)  is  readily 
adapted  to  this  purpose.  In  Langstroth-Dadant  ^  (p.  218) 
is  the  statement  that  swarming  bees  cluster  on  any  dark 
object  that  resembles  a  swarm  in  shape,  especially  if  th'at 
object  affords  adequate  support.  This  presupposes  that 
bees  are  attracted  to  the  clustering  place  through  sight,  for 
which  supposition  there  is  little  evidence.  In  this  discussion 
an  old  comb  is  mentioned  as  a  favorite  support,  but  in  this  case 
it  cannot  be  claimed  that  sight  is  the  only  means  of  perception. 

Supposed  aids  to  clustering. 

An  old  practice  at  the  time  of  swarming  was  to  beat  tin 
pans,  ring  bells  or  otherwise  to  create  a  din,  in  the  belief 

1  Langstroth-Dadant,  1907.  Langstroth  on  the  hive  and  honey  bee,  re- 
vised by  Dadant.    Hamilton,  111.,  575  pp. 


Fig.  47.  —  Swarm  catcher. 


The  Cycle  of  the  Year  67 

that  the  distracting  noise  would  cause  the  bees  to  settle. 
Modern  beekeepers  haye  abandoned  this  relic  of  antiquity, 
since  it  has  no  effect  whatsoever  on  the  clustering.  The 
origin  of  this  ancient  practice  has  been  variously  explained, 
one  plausible  theory  being  that  it  arose  from  the  practice 
of  notifying  neighbors  of  the  issuing  of  a  swarm,  so  that 
ownership  could  be  claimed.  Nowadays  a  bell  is  not  a 
part  of  the  apiary  equipment  and  no  evil  seems  to  have 
come  from  neglecting  this  rite.  Flashing  Ughts  on  the 
swarm  by  means  of  a  mirror  is  another  theoretical  impedi- 
ment to  long  flights  in  which  the  modern  beekeeper  places 
no  confidence. 

ScoiUs. 

Under  natural  conditions,  when  the  queen  is  present,  the 
swarm  will  hang  on  the  support  from  fifteen  minutes  to  a 
day  or  more.  The  cluster  is  usually  then  broken  and  the 
swarm  flies  away  (often  for  a  considerable  distance)  to 
estabhsh  itself  in  a  hollow  tree  or  cave.  That  scouts  locate 
the  future  abode  has  been  claimed,  probably  correctly. 
Baron  v.  Berlepsch,  the  celebrated  German  beekeeper, 
records  ^  an  instance  of  scouts  working  for  several  days  in 
advance  of  swarming  to  prepare  a  place.  Usually  it  can- 
not be  so  well  demonstrated  that  scouts  have  been  sent 
out,  but  the  accuracy  with  which  swarms  often  fly  to  a 
cavity  without  delay  indicates  that  they  are  in  some  manner 
led  to  the  place.  How  this  is  done  is  not  known.  Similar 
instances  of  bees  being  led  to  certain  places  are  discussed 
in  a  later  chapter  (p.  120). 

After  the  swarm  has  been  removed  (Fig.  48)  a  few  bees 
will  often  be  seen  around  the  former  location  of  the  cluster, 
either  at  rest  or  on  the  wing.  These  bees  are  evidently 
attracted  or  held  by  the  odor  which  adheres  to  the  support. 
That  these  are  scouts  which  return  after  the  cluster  is  hived 

1  V.  Berlepsch,  1852,  Eichstadt  Bienenzeitung,  VII,  Nr.  7.  Reprinted 
in  V.   Buttel-Reepen,    1906.     Are  bees   reflex   machines?      (Eng.    trans.) 


68  Beekeeping 

has  been  suggested.  At  any  rate,  the  modem  practice  is 
to  hive  a  swarm  away  from  the  clustering  place  for  fear  re- 
turning scouts  may  draw  away  the  colony. 

Entering  the  new  home. 

When  a  swarm  enters  a  new  abode,  the  first  bees  to  locate 
the  entrance  stand  with  their  legs  extended  and  the  abdomen 
raised  to  an  angle  of  about  45°,  while  their  dorsal  scent 
glands  (pp.  65  and  172)  are  exposed.  They  fan  vigorously 
and  the  odor  given  off  is  sufficiently  strong  to  be  perceived 
if  the  nose  is  placed  within  an  inch  or  two  of  the  fanning 
bees.  Bees  to  the  rear  take  up  the  same  position  until 
finally  the  whole  mass  is  fanning  and  moving  toward  the 
entrance  ^  (Fig.  49).  This  may  be  observed  also  if  bees 
are  thrown  in  front  of  the  hive. 

When  a  swarm  enters  a  cavity,  the  bees  promptly  clean 
it  of  loose  pfeces  and  dirt,  the  large  pieces  and  irregularities 
of  the  cavity  being  ultimately  covered  with  propoUs.  Large 
numbers  of  bees,  especially  the  younger  ones,  now  hang 
on  one  another  in  curtains  while  the  secretion  of  wax  takes 
place  for  the  building  of  combs.  The  supply  of  honey 
carried  in  the  honey  stomachs  is  adequate  to  nourish  the 
colony  for  a  time  if  no  nectar  can  be  brought  to  the  hive. 
As  soon  as  there  are  cells  available  the  queen  begins  egg- 
laying,  the  field  bees  gather  the  available  nectar  and 
pollen  and  these  activities  increase  as  the  comb  is  sup- 
pHed  by  the  comb  builders.  The  swarm  is  equipped  as  a 
normal  colony  in  a  surprisingly  short  time,  if  the  nectar 
supply  is  adequate. 

1  If  by  chance  the  first  bees  are  headed  in  the  wrong  direction  or  if  the 
hive  is  moved  after  the  fanning  has  begun,  the  whole  mass  may  march 
away  in  the  wrong  direction.  In  shaking  bees  in  front  of  the  hive  it  is 
therefore  advisable  to  toss  some  of  them  in  the  entrance,  v.  Buttel- 
Reepen  attributes  this  action  to  the  sound  given  off  in  fanning,  but  there 
is  little  to  support  this  belief.  In  this  marching,  any  slight  obstacle  in- 
terferes greatly  with  the  progress  of  the  mass  of  bees,  which  would  scarcely 
be  the  case  if  sound  were  the  attracting  stimulus.  Even  the  smallest 
amount  of  smoke  interferes  for  the  moment  with  the  entrance  of  a  swarm 
and  smoking  should  be  avoided  at  this  time. 


The  Cycle  oj  the  Year  69 

Parent  colony. 

This  name  is  usually  given  to  that  part  of  the  original 
colony  which  remains  in  the  hive  after  the  swarm  issues. 
It  is  misleading  in  that  the  actual  parent  of  the  individual 
bees,  the  queen,  departs  with  the  first  swarm  but,  as  ordinarily 
used,  the  term  indicates  merely  the  colony  from  which  the 
swarm  issues  and  is  not  misunderstood.  The  course  of 
events  in  this  colony  will  now  be  given,  it  being  assumed 
that,  in  the  present  instance,  another  swarm  will  not  be 
cast.  In  a  few  days  (often  about  eight  days)  after  the  de- 
parture of  the  swarm,  the  first  young  queen  emerges  from 
her  cell  by  gnawing  her  way  out,  often  with  the  help  of  the 
workers.^  She  may  destroy  the  other  queens  by  gnawing 
into  their  cells,  so  that  she  is  without  a  rival  in  the  colony, 
and  she  may  be  assisted  in  this  destruction  by  the  workers. 

Mating  flight. 

When  a  few  days  old,  the  time  depending  somewhat  on 
the  weather  and  the  race  of  bees,  the  virgin  queen  flies 
from  the  hive  for  the  first  time.  Her  early  flights,  often 
several  in  number,  resemble  the  first  flights  of  worker  bees 
for  she  circles  about  the  entrance,  gradually  venturing  farther 
away,  apparently  taking  note  of  the  location  of  the  hive. 
At  last  when  from  five  to  eight  days  old,  she  flies  quickly 
from  the  hive  without  preUminary  circling  and  flies  upward 
in  larger  and  larger  circles,  often  until  she  is  lost  to  vision.^ 

1  Before  the  queen  emerges,  the  bees  frequently  gnaw  away  part  of  the 
capping  of  the  queen  cell,  making  it  thinner  and  smooth.  As  the  virgin 
queen  cuts  her  way  out  she  may  be  fed  by  worker  bees.  In  cutting  the 
queen  cell,  it  frequently  happens  that  a  circular  cut  is  made  and  at  one  place 
the  capping  is  left  intact,  forming  a  kind  of  flap.  After  the  queen  emerges 
this  flap  may  spring  back  into  place,  confusing  the  beekeeper  who  sometimes 
does  not  recognize  the  cell  as  an  empty  one. 

2  In  the  summer  of  1903,  the  author  and  an  equally  ardent  co-worker 
made  a  series  of  observations  on  the  flight  of  virgin  queens  in  the  vivarium 
of  the  Zoological  Department  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  Small 
nuclei  were  placed  about  the  room,  which  is  covered  with  a  glass  roof,  and 
a  full  colony  was  so  arranged  that  the  workers  could  fly  freely  to  the  outside 
but  the  drones  could  leave  only  to  the  inside.     The  drones  used  had  never 


70  Beekeeping 

On  such  a  trip  she  meets  the  drone  and  after  mating  *  takes 
place  she  returns  to  the  hive.  She  may  be  followed  back 
by  a  considerable  number  of  drones  which  sometimes  re- 
main about  the  front  of  the  hive  for  several  hours.  The 
mating  flight  may  last  only  a  few  minutes  or  may  be  pro- 
tracted to  over  a  haK-hour,  probably  depending  on  the 
number  of  drones  in  flight  near  by.  The  male  genital  organs 
which  are  torn  off  in  mating  may  often  be  seen  protruding 
from  the  queen's  vagina  and  this  is  useful  to  the  beekeeper 
as  evidence  of  mating.  These  parts  shrivel  in  a  short  time 
and  are  removed  by  the  workers.     In  about  two  days  after 

flown  outdoors,  it  being  found  that  drones  which  had  experienced  flight 
in  the  open  air  soon  wore  themselves  out  on  the  glass  in  their  efforts  to 
escape.  Virgin  queens  were  introduced  to  the  nuclei  and  their  flights 
were  observed  from  the  rafters  above.  The  first  flights  were  circles  of 
small  diameter  and  while  on  these  flights  the  queens  were  never  seen  to 
be  followed  by  drones.  If  the  virgins  did  not  fly  frequently  enough  to 
satisfy  the  observers  they  would  sometimes  be  removed  and  tossed  into 
the  air,  when  they  behaved  normally.  Finally  the  virgin  would  dart  from 
the  entrance  and  swiftly  circle  upward,  often  followed  by  several  drones. 
She  would  soon  strike  the  glass  roof  and  alight  and  the  drones  would  at 
once  disperse,  there  apparently  being  no  attraction  in  a  queen  at  rest.  It 
has  long  been  the  dream  of  beekeepers  to  induce  mating  in  an  inclosure, 
so  that  mating  can  be  controlled  for  purposes  of  selection  and  the  observa- 
tions here  mentioned  were  instigated  by  this  desire.  No  queens  mated  in 
the  room.  The  virgin  queens  usually  returned  to  the  nuclei  unassisted, 
unless  the  flight  occurred  late  in  the  afternoon. 

During  the  summers  of  1903  and  1904,  several  unsuccessful  attempts 
were  made  to  produce  drone-laying  queens  (p.  187)  by  confining  virgin 
queens  to  prevent  mating  flights.  During  the  morning  the  small  nuclei 
showed  no  special  signs  of  excitement  but  in  the  early  afternoon  the  queens 
would  attempt  to  eave  the  hive  and  would  be  prevented  by  the  perforated 
zinc  over  the  entrances.  They  would  sometimes  continue  these  efforts 
until  dark.  While  this  was  going  on,  the  workers  would  crowd  around  the 
entrance  both  inside  and  out  and  rush  about  "as  if  offering  assistance." 
These  efforts  were  not  observed  during  the  first  few  days  after  emergence 
of  the  queens  from  the  cell  and  finally  the  queens  were  no  longer  seen  at 
the  entrances.  Within  a  month  they  had  all  died.  Whether  this  was  due 
to  over-exertion  or  to  the  inability  to  mate  or  whether  they  were  killed  by 
the  workers  could  not  be  determined.  Keeping  virgin  queens  in  cages  was 
equally  unsuccessful. 

^  The  act  of  mating  is  rarely  seen,  but  a  few  beekeepers  have  reported 
instances  in  which  this  was  observed.  Apparently  after  the  union  the  queen 
and  drone  fall  to  the  ground  and  the  queen  turns  around  and  around  until 
she  tears  the  copulatory  organs  from  the  dead  drone. 


The  Cycle  of  the  Year  71 

mating,  the  queen  begins  to  lay  eggs  and  from  that  time 
on  the  routine  of  egg-laying  is  her  portion.  The  so-called 
parent  colony  is  now  normal,  with  a  laying  queen,  comb, 
stores  and  brood. 

After-swarms. 

If  the  colony  which  cast  the  first  swarm  is  populous,  there 
may  be  left  in  the  parent  colony  enough  bees  to  cause  the 
issuing  of  other  swarms.  These  are  called  second-swarms, 
third-swarms  or,  collectively,  after-swarms.  When  the  first 
virgin  queen  emerges  she  often  does  not  destroy  the  other 
queen  cells  but,  instead,  flies  from  the  hive  with  another 
swarm.  This  may  be  repeated  several  times  as  other  queens 
emerge,  the  swarms  usually  becoming  successively  smaller. 
The  queens  departing  with  after-swarms  are  virgins  and 
consequently  must  mate  before  they  are  able  to  fulfill  their 
duties  normally.  Good  beekeepers  make  every  effort  to 
prevent  after-swarms  as  they  are  usually  too  weak  to  be 
of  value  and  they  deplete  the  parent  colony,  making  the 
gathering  of  surplus  honey  impossible.  When  virgin  queens 
fly  out  to  mate,  they  may  be  accompanied  by  a  little 
*' swarm,"  which  affords  some  evidence  that  the  swarm  is 
led  out  by  the  queen.  Nuclei  used  for  mating  queens  are 
often  almost  depopulated  in  this  way. 

If  the  old  queen  in  a  colony  is  prevented  from  flying  or 
is  unable  to  fly  (as  by  having  the  wings  clipped),  the  bees 
may  make  several  efforts  to  swarm  without  her.  They 
often  finally  kill  the  old  queen  and  depart  with  a  virgin. 
Such  a  swarm  may  be  the  first  to  issue  from  a  colony  in  the 
season,  but  it  is  virtually  an  after-swarm  in  its  composition 
and  behavior.  Swarms  of  this  kind  often  cause  the  bee- 
keeper trouble  if  he  is  unaware  that  the  old  queen  has 
been  superseded,  and  consequently  if  the  old  queen  was 
clipped  he  thinks  that  the  swarm  is  without  a  queen  and 
will  return. 

After-swarms  are  the  plague  of  the  beekeeper's  life,  for 
they  seem  to  break  all  the  laws  of  the  bee  colony.     They 


72  Beekeeping 

often  cluster  without  a  queen,  they  are  fleet  on  the  wing, 
they  may  fly  directly  to  the  woods  without  clustering  and 
they  cannot  be  accurately  foretold,  as  can  a  first  swarm, 
when  the  queen  cells  are  of  value  as  a  forewarning. 

Activity  of  swarms. 

It  is  often  maintained  that  the  bees  in  a  swarm  work 
with  greater  vigor  than  those  which  have  not  swarmed. 
While  this  cannot  be  accepted  without  qualification,  there 
are  certain  activities  which  are  more  in  evidence  at  this 
time.  Wax  secretion  is  apparently  carried  on  more  readily 
than  under  other  conditions,  and  if  nectar  is  available  the 
bees  may  be  so  manipulated  that  a  large  amount  of  surplus 
honey  is  obtained.  To  take  advantage  of  the  supposedly 
increased  activity  of  the  swarm,  the  same  conditions  are 
partially  induced  artificially  in  various  manipulations. 
The  effect  of  swarming  on  egg-laying  has  been  mentioned. 
It  is  probable  that  the  supposed  vigor  of  swarms  is  due  not 
so  much  to  the  accomplishment  of  more  work  as  to  the 
diverting  of  the  labor  of  the  colony  into  lines  which  are 
more  conspicuous  to  the  beekeeper.  It  will  be  shown 
later  that  colonies  which  swarm  produce  less  honey  than 
those  which  make  no  effort  to  swarm. 

Swarming  conditions  induced  artificially. 

While  so-called  artificial  swarms  are  a  part  of  the  practical 
manipulations  to  be  discussed  in  later  chapters,  it  may  be 
of  interest  to  record  some  attempts  at  producing  swarming 
conditions  which  throw  some  light  on  the  natural  phe- 
nomenon. During  the  summers  of  1912  and  1913,  the 
author  was  interested  in  the  taking  of  motion  pictures  of 
bee  activities.  In  the  first  season,  Fortune  favored  the 
project  by  permitting  the  use  of  a  natural  swarm,  which 
was,  however,  artificially  delayed  until  the  camera  was  ad- 
justed. In  all  cases  the  clustering  was  produced  artificially. 
In  the  first  case,  a  swarm  issued  on  a  Thursday  morning 
and  the  queen  was  caught,  caged  and  placed  in  the  second 


The  Cycle  of  the  Year  73 

story  of  the  hive,  thus  causing  the  bees  to  return.  At 
eight  o'clock  the  following  Saturday  morning  the  queen 
was  liberated  and  about  nine  o'clock  the  camera  was  focused 
on  the  entrance  and  front  of  the  hive.  In  not  more  than 
fifteen  minutes  after  everything  was  ready  and  as  the  wait- 
ing group  was  in  attendance  seated  on  adjoining  hives,  the 
swarm  came  out  and  the  camera  was  put  in  action.  When 
the  (clipped)  queen  left  the  hive,  the  camera  was  stopped 
and  she  was  put  into  a  queen  cage  which  was  then  tied  to 
the  limb  of  a  tree,  so  situated  that  a  swarm  hanging  on  it 
would  show  against  the  sky.  When  the  bees  returned  to 
the  hive  they  were  shaken  into  a  box  and  thrown  uncere- 
moniously into  the  branches  of  the  tree  around  the  caged 
queen.  Those  that  returned  to  the  hive  were  again  brought 
out.  In  a  short  time  the  fanning  observed  in  a  natural 
cluster  was  set  up  and  the  bees  gradually  formed  a  shapely 
cluster.  To  get  pictures  of  the  settling  of  the  swarm,  the 
branch  was  now  shaken,  at  first  gently  and  then  more  and 
more  vigorously,  and  the  bees  returned  to  the  same  branch 
in  the  exact  manner  of  the  clustering  of  a  natural  swarm. 
Here  again  the  camera  man  was  busy.  The  further  treat- 
ment of  the  bees  was  exactly  as  with  a  natural  swarm. 

Since  the  first  pictures  were  not  satisfactory,  the  per- 
formance was  repeated  twice  the  next  year  but  without 
the  aid  of  a  natural  swarm.  The  bees  were  shaken  into  an 
empty  hive  on  the  old  stand  with  the  entrance  closed  by  a 
stick.  The  clustered  bees  were  then  loosened  from  the 
inside  of  the  hive  cover  by  pounding,  and  as  the  stick  was 
removed  the  camera  was  started.  The  rushing  out  of  the 
bees  could  not  be  distinguished  from  that  of  a  natural  swarm. 
The  bees  were  then  shaken  into  a  box  and  placed  on  a  branch 
about  the  caged  queen.  These  unusual  procedures  suggest 
that  the  clustering  is  brought  about  by  the  attraction  of  the 
odor  from  the  dorsal  scent  gland  and  that  the  bees  may  be 
induced  to  abandon  their  old  hive  by  the  shaking  incident 
to  this  manipulation.  It  is  also  suggested  that  the  queen 
plays  an  important  part  in  clustering. 


74  Beekeeping 

Peculiarities  of  bees  in  swarming. 

A  bee  normally  returns  from  the  field  to  its  own  hive  and, 
while  it  may  make  mistakes,  it  ''knows"  its  own  location. 
This  is  accomplished  by  the  exercise  of  a  memory  of  loca- 
tion (p.  179).  When  the  swarm  issues,  the  memory  of  the 
old  location  is  abandoned  (not  destroyed),  but  if  the  queen 
is  lost  or  removed  this  memory  is  again  called  into  action 
and  the  bees  return  to  the  old  hive.  If  the  queen  goes 
with  the  swarm,  it  may  be  placed  in  a  new  hive,  even  right 
beside  the  old  one  if  desired,  and  the  bees  no  longer  return 
to  the  old  hive.  On  the  return  from  future  trips  to  the 
field  they  go  directly  to  the  new  home.  The  memory  of 
the  old  location  is  no  longer  called  into  action  and  is  finally 
lost.  This  is  accomplished  also  in  artificial  swarming  but 
perhaps  not  to  so  marked  a  degree. 

When  a  swarm  issues  and  the  air  is  filled  with  the  circling 
bees,  it  sometimes  happens  that  other  colonies  which  are 
preparing  to  swarm  will  send  out  swarms  prematurely  and 
the  various  swarms  will  mingle  in  the  air  and  in  the  cluster. 
Even  if  this  does  not  happen,  drones  from  various  colonies 
join  the  swarm.  These  facts  indicate  that  swarming  bees 
have  an  attractive  influence  toward  other  bees.  This  has 
been  attributed  to  the  noise  made  by  flying  bees,  which  is 
so  well  known  to  beekeepers  and  which  is  sometimes  called 
the  "swarm  tone."  Since  it  is  not  surely  determined  that 
bees  hear,  it  may  be  that  this  attraction  is  not  one  of  sound 
but  may  be  one  of  smell. 

The  issuing  of  premature  swarms  and^of  numerous  after- 
swarms  may  become  so  common  as  to  demoralize  the  apiary 
and  swarms  may  issue  several  at  a  time,  without  queens, 
when  no  queen  cells  have  been  built  or  when  the  colony 
has  recently  swarmed.  Several  swarms  may  unite  in  one 
cluster.  The  impulse  to  swarm  is  known  among  beekeepers 
as  the  ''swarming  fever"  and  the  exaggerated  conditions 
just  described  are  often  discussed  as  if  this  "fever"  were 
infectious.  Under  such  conditions,  the  usual  rules  for 
swarming  laid  down  by  the  beekeeper  are  seemingly  dis- 


The  Cycle  of  the  Year  75 

regarded,  which  may  be  construed  as  evidence  that,  after 
all,  the  beekeeper  knows  little  about  swarming. 

Since  swarming  bees  influence  other  bees  to  swarm  pre- 
maturely, it  is  evident  that  these  conditions  may  become 
worse  in  large  commercial  apiaries  than  would  be  the  case 
if  colonies  were  scattered  as  wild  bees  are  or  where  only  a 
few  colonies  are  kept  together.  This  abnormal  condition 
is  largely  the  result  of  modern  beekeeping,  not  only  in  the 
maintenance  of  large  apiaries  but  more  especially  in  the 
manipulations  practiced  in  comb-honey  production. 

It  is  sometimes  assumed  that  bees  from  colonies  about  to 
swarm  get  mixed  in  other  colonies  and  serve  to  incite  swarm- 
ing in  their  new  homes.  There  is  no  good  evidence  for  this 
belief. 

It  should  also  be  noted  that  when  preparations  for  swarm- 
ing are  well  under  way,  the  various  manipulations  devised 
to  prevent  it  are  usually  unsuccessful  and  the  only  way  to 
get  the  colony  back  to  normal  (normal  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  beekeeper)  is  either  to  allow  it  to  swarm  naturally, 
to  make  an  artificial  swarm,  or  to  remove  or  cage  the  queen. 
This  and  numerous  other  facts  observed  in  swarm  control 
indicate  that  the  condition  of  the  bees  which  induces  swarm- 
ing is  not  one  which  comes  into  existence  suddenly,  but 
is  the  result  of  a  gradual  development.  Whether  this  con- 
dition is  physiological  or  psychological  is  undetermined. 
Whatever  the  condition  may  be,  it  is  in  a  sense  at  odds 
with  the  gathering  instinct,  so  that  one  of  the  most  difficult 
problems  of  the  northern  comb-honey  producer  is  to  keep 
his  colonies  in  the  optimum  condition  for  gathering,  which 
is  equivalent  to  swarm  prevention. 

Cause  of  swarming. 

Perhaps  no  subject  in  bee  behavior  has  been  so  mucK 
discussed  as  the  cause  of  swarming.  The  simplest  way  to 
account  for  this  phenomenon  is  to  attribute  it  to  "instinct" 
but  naturally  in  doing  this  we  are  no  nearer  an  explanation 
than  we  were  before.     Instinct  is  blamed  for  many  things 


76  Beekeeping 

in  bee  literature,  it  being  overlooked  that  instincts  are  called 
into  action  only  by  definite  conditions  in  the  environment. 
It  is  also  a  common  error  to  assume  that  bees  voluntarily 
call  forth  this  instinct  when  ''things  look  favorable,"  but 
this  is  similar  to  the  giving  of  human  motives  to  other 
actions  and  is  unjustifiable  here  as  elsewhere.  This  kind 
of  error  is  mentioned  again  here  because  it  appears  so  fre- 
quently in  the  discussion  of  swarming. 

Overcrowding  of  the  hive,  lack  of  ventilation,  heat,  an 
abundance  of  drones  and  other  conditions  have  been  re- 
peatedly given  as  causes  or  contributing  conditions  to 
swarming.  Unfortunately  for  these  speculations,  the  con- 
ditions named  may  be  partially  or  entirely  lacking  at  the 
time  of  swarming,  although  generally  they  are  present  in 
colonies  about  to  swarm.  To  establish  the  cause  of  swarm- 
ing, however,  it  is  first  necessary  to  find  a  condition  or 
conditions  which  are  invariably  present.  While  this  prob- 
lem is  as  yet  unsolved,  an  analysis  of  some  of  the  facts  ob- 
served may  be  helpful. 

It  should  first  of  all  be  observed  that  swarming  is  par- 
ticularly prevalent  in  the  northern  regions.  Near  the 
northern  limits  of  the  white  clover  belt,  for  example,  there 
is  a  definite,  relatively  short  period  when  swarming  may 
be  expected.  This  comes  before  and  during  the  white 
clover  honey-flow  but  when  the  nectar  is  coming  in  freely 
swarming  may  become  rare.  Beekeepers  usually  explain 
this  by  saying  that  the  bees  are  too  busy  gathering  nectar 
to  swarm,  but  this  explanation  is  unsatisfactory.  Farther 
south,  there  is  a  less  well  marked  swarming  season  and  the 
percentage  of  colonies  which  swarm  or  which  prepare  to 
swarm  decreases  as  a  rule,  until  under  average  tropical 
conditions  swarming  becomes  much  less  abundant,  the 
swarming  period  being  less  definite  and  more  prolonged. 
There  are  some  exceptions  to  this  general  statement.  Swarm- 
ing may  extend  over  six  weeks  or  more  in  parts  of  Florida  but 
is  never  as  excessive  as  it  sometimes  is  in  the  North. 

It  should  further  be  noted  that  colonies  headed  by  young 


The  Cycle  of  the  Year  77 

queens  are  less  likely  to  swarm  than  those  with  older  queens. 
For  example,  if  a  young  queen  is  introduced  to  a  colony  in 
August  the  probability  of  a  swarm  from  that  colony  the 
following  spring  is  less  than  if  the  queen  were  reared  early 
the  preceding  spring. 

Within  the  white  clover  region,  some  interesting  differences 
may  be  noted.  Geo.  S.  Demuth  of  the  Bureau  of  Ento- 
mology reports  the  following  interesting  variations.  In  south- 
ern Indiana  swarming  has  usually  ceased  before  the  beginning 
of  the  white  clover  honey-flow,  while  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  State  the  swarming  season  extends  into  the  honey- 
flow.  This  indicates  that  the  stimulus  of  the  heavy  honey- 
flow  is  not  the  cause  of  swarming.  In  one  season  which 
came  under  Demuth's  observation,  white  clover  failed 
to  secrete  enough  nectar  to  provide  surplus  honey  in  north- 
ern Indiana  and  colonies  were  unable  to  build  up  sufficiently 
to  swarm.  In  August,  however,  there  was  a  heavy  yield 
from  heartsease,  the  colonies  built  up  rapidly  and  there 
was  a  well  marked  period  of  swarming.  Demuth  at  one 
time  practiced  moving  his  bees  in  the  fall  to  the.  Kankakee 
swamps  for  the  Spanish  needle  honey-flow.  While  swarm- 
ing was  common  in  the  spring  during  the  white  clover  honey- 
flow,  it  was  not  so  during  the  fall  honey-flow.  The  same 
thing  is  observed  when  clover  is  followed  by  buckwheat. 
While,  therefore,  honey-flows  influence  swarming  by  provid- 
ing stores  whereby  colonies  may  build  up  to  swarming 
strength,  they  can  scarcely  be  considered  as  primary  causes 
of  swarming. 

The  lack  of  adequate  space  for  breeding  is  a  common 
condition  in  colonies  from  which  swarms  issue  and  the  con- 
traction of  the  brood  chamber  in  comb-honey  production 
probably  contributes  to  excessive  swarming.  However, 
if  the  contraction  is  excessive  swarming  is  greatly  reduced 
and  if  this  is  carried  to  the  extreme  we  have  artificial  swarm- 
ing, in  which  operation  all  the  brood  combs  are  removed. 

There  iis  a  marked  difference  in  the  amount  of  swarming 
according  to  the  type  of  honey  produced.     In  the  produc- 


78  Beekeeping 

tion  of  extracted-honey,  in  which  the  bees  are  provided 
with  an  abundance  of  empty  combs,  swarming  is  much  less 
common  than  from  the  contracted  and  crowded  hives  con- 
sidered necessary  for  the  production  of  comb-honey. 
Similarly  in  the  ''non-swarming  hive"  devised  by  L.  A. 
Aspinwall,  Jackson,  Michigan,  an  abundance  of  room  is 
provided  in  the  brood  chamber  by  the  insertion  of  slatted 
wooden  separators  between  the  brood  combs.  From  this 
array  of  seemingly  irreconcilable  statements,  one  thing  in 
common  may  be  observed.  So  far  as  contraction  is  con- 
cerned, when  swarming  is  less  common  there  is  room  avail- 
able for  the  young  bees  which  have  not  yet  begun  their 
field  duties. 

In  the  preparation  of  his  Farmers'  Bulletin  on  Comb 
Honey,^  Demuth  makes  a  careful  analysis  of  the  various 
methods  employed  in  the  control  of  swarming,  which  is  so 
important  a  problem  in  the  production  of  comb-honey. 
The  follomng  quotation  from  this  bulletin  gives  his  con- 
clusions:  ''Any  manipulation  for  swarm  control,  whether 
applied  after  the  colony  has  acquired  the  'swarming  fever' 
or  applied  to  all  colonies  alike  previous  to  the  swarming 
season,  is  based  upon  a  single  principle  —  a  temporary  dis- 
turbance in  the  continuity  of  the  daily  emergence  of  brood. 
This  disturbance  should  occur  just  previous  to  or  during 
the  swarming  season."  While  the  various  methods  of 
swarm  control  are  reserved  for  a  later  chapter,  the  funda- 
mental principle  that  there  must  be  a  temporary  disturbance 
in  the  continuity  of  brood  emergence,  which  Demuth  was 
the  first  to  point  out,  is  of  primary  importance  in  a  con- 
sideration of  the  cause  of  swarming.  The  methods  de- 
scribed in  Demuth's  bulletin  are  those  which  have  proved 
reliable  in  the  hands  of  practical  beekeepers  throughout 
the  United  States  and  yet  these  methods  do  not  have  in 
common  those  things  which  are  called  for  in  considering 
overcrowding,  overheating,  lack  of  ventilation  or  the  presence 

1  Demuth,  Geo.  S.,  1912.  Comb  Honey.  Farmers'  Bulletin  503,  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agric.  [see  especially  pp.  34-35]. 


The  Cycle  of  the  Year  79 

of  drones  as  causes  of  swarming.  If  these  things  are  really 
causes  of  swarming  it  is  somewhat  remarkable  that  the 
application  of  remedies  for  these  conditions  are  not  more 
serviceable  in  controlling  swarming. 

The  principle  involved  in  swarm  control  and  the  differ- 
ences in  the  amount  and  persistence  of  swarming  observed 
in  different  regions  and  under  different  systems  of  manipu- 
lations indicate  that  swarming  colonies  have  at  least  one 
condition  in  common.  While  this  condition  may  not  be 
the  cause  of  swarming,  it  is  at  least  interesting  to  study  its 
application.  Gerstung  advances  the  theory  that  swarming 
is  caused  by  the  presence  of  too  many  young  bees  in  the 
hive.  These  bees,  as  will  be  discussed  in  a  chapter  to  fol- 
low, are  those  which  feed  the  larvae  and  the  usual  supposi- 
tion is  that  there  is  too  much  larval  food  prepared  and  that 
the  presence  of  this  food  in  the  nurse  bees  induces  the  build- 
ing of  queen  cells  and  the  rearing  of  queens.  While  this 
effort  at  explaining  the  results  of  the  presence  of  an  unusual 
number  of  young  bees  may  be  open  to  question,  it  may  at 
least  be  pointed  out  that  swarming  is  always  accompanied 
by  an  unbalanced  condition  of  the  brood-chamber  (not  of 
the  hive)  in  regard  to  the  age  of  the  bees  found  there.  If 
the  various  preceding  statements  concerning  swarming  are 
re-examined,  it  is  seen  that  when  swarming  occurs  normally 
there  is  actually  this  unbalanced  condition.  In  the  north- 
ern regions  breeding  reaches  its  maximum  in  a  shorter  time 
than  in  the  South  and  consequently  as  this  brood  emerges 
the  colony  suddenly  acquires  an  unusual  number  of  young 
adults.  Where  the  season  opens  earlier  this  condition  is 
reached  earlier  (c/.  southern  and  northern  Indiana),  while 
in  the  South,  where  breeding  increases  more  gradually, 
this  condition  becomes  less  marked.  Finally  in  the  tropics 
the  preponderance  of  young  bees  does  not  occur  unless 
breeding  is  decreased  by  a  dearth  and  begun  again  by  a 
rapid  flow.  Variation  in  seasons  may  cause  either  a  more 
gradual  breeding  in  the  North  or  a  greater  rapidity  farther 
south.     This  may  explain  the  divergence  in  the  experience 


80  Beekeeping 

of  beekeepers  from  year  to  year  in  the  number  of  colonies 
which  prepare  to  swarm.  If  there  is  a  dearth  of  nectar, 
swarming  may  be  lacking  and  may  accompany  a  later  honey- 
flow  {cf.  example  of  heartsease  honey-flow,  p.  77),  when 
the  unbalanced  condition  likewise  occurs.  Where  an 
abundance  of  room  is  provided  {e.g.  extracted-honey  pro- 
duction), the  younger  bees  are  usually  found  in  the  upper 
portions  of  the  hive  away  from  the  brood,  and  to  this  extent 
they  are  eliminated.  In  the  Aspinwall  hive,  the  space 
between  the  slats  provides  room  for  the  young  bees  away 
from  the  brood.  The  distinction  of  having  the  young  bees 
away  from  the  brood  is  probably  important  and  finds  its 
application  in  the  proper  manipulation  of  comb-honey 
supers  (p.  314).  A  queen  is  capable  of  maximum  egg- 
laying  only  after  some  weeks  of  egg-production  and  this 
may  serve  to  explain  the  lack  of  swarming  in  colonies  headed 
by  queens  reared  and  introduced  in  August.  Demuth's 
conclusion  on  the  control  of  swarming  exactly  coincides 
with  this  theory  as  to  cause. 

This  theory  is  not  again  brought  forward  as  a  satisfactory 
solutipn  of  the  cause  of  swarming.  It  is  desired  at  this 
time  merely  to  point  out  that,  of  all  the  theories  advanced, 
this  most  nearly  satisfies  the  various  and  divergent  con- 
ditions observed  in  connection  with  this  peculiar  phenome- 
non. The  subject  is  one  of  great  interest  and  of  the  utmost 
importance  to  the  practical  beekeeper.  It  is  worthy  of 
more  serious  investigation  than  it  has  so  far  received. 

Swarming-out 

Bees  sometimes  abandon  their  nest  and  to  this  phenomenon 
is  usually  given  the  name  ''swarming-out."  This  is  mislead- 
ing since  it  indicates  some  relation  between  this  and  swarm- 
ing and  it  is  not  definitely  known  that  any  such  relation 
exists.  Swarming-out  may  occur  imder  a  variety  of  con- 
ditions, the  most  common  of  which  is  in  the  early  spring 
(or  at  other  times)  if  the  stores  are  exhausted.  These  are 
also  known  as  ''hunger  swarms."     Some  of  the  published 


The  Cycle  of  the  Year  81 

records  of  extraordinarily  early  swarms  are  doubtless  in- 
stances of  swarming-out  rather  than  of  swarming.  Nuclei 
used  in  queen-rearing  are  frequently  depopulated,  but  this 
may  be  a  case  of  the  bees  accompanying  the  virgin  queen 
on  her  mating  flight.  When  American  foul  brood  is  present 
in  a  colony,  swarming-out  is  of  common  occurrence,  the 
bees  abandoning  the  hive  when  in  advanced  stages  of  the 
disease.  Whether  this  is  due  to  the  influence  of  the  (to 
us)  unpleasant  odor  is  not  clear. 

Somewhat  similar  is  the  abandonment  of  the  hive  so 
frequent  after  hiving  artificial  or  natural  swarms  or  after 
treatment  of  a  brood  disease.  After  the  artificial  swarm  is 
made,  the  bees  may  leave  immediately  or  they  may  begin 
work  and  then  desert  the  hive  within  twenty-four  hours  or 
even  later.  This  is  prevented  if  a  comb  containing  un- 
sealed larvse  is  given  the  colony  or,  if  a  queen  trap  is  placed 
over  the  entrance,  the  deserting  bees  will  return  to  the 
imprisoned  queen.  When  bees  swarm-out  they  may  cluster 
or  they  may  fly  away  as  after-swarms  often  do.  After 
artificial  swarming,  a  colony  may  repeatedly  attempt  to 
swarm-out,  suggesting  the  intensified  swarming  sometimes 
observed  in  northern  comb-honey  apiaries.  After  sufficient 
comb  is  built  and  when  larvse  have  hatched,  this  trouble 
disappears.  The  swarming-out  of  colonies  under  adverse 
conditions  suggests  the  reported  action  of  giant  bees  {Apis 
dorsata),  which  are  said  to  abandon  their  combs  if  attacked 
by  the  wax-moth,  or  to  migrate  with  the  change  in  seasons 
to  districts  where  nectar  is  available. 


GATHERING   OF  NECTAR   AND   STORING   OF   HONEY 

At  any  time  that  nectar  is  available,  if  the  weather  is 
suitable  for  flight,  the  bees  gather  nectar  to  be  converted 
into  honey  for  use  as  food.  Usually,  as  early  in  the  spring 
as  bees  are  able  to  leave  the  hive  for  extended  flights,  there 
is  some  nectar  available  but,  under  the  adverse  condition  of 
spring,  when  the  colonies  are. weak  and  when  flying  is  diffi- 

G 


82  Beekeeping 

cult,  no  more  honey  can  be  obtained  than  bees  need  for 
their  own  use  and  usually  they  must  draw  on  their  old 
stores  during  this  season.  In  almost  every  locality,  there 
are  later  periods  when  no  nectar  is  available  or  at  least 
when  there  is  less  than  enough  to  maintain  the  colony. 
That  commercial  beekeeping  may  be  possible,  there  must 
be  other  periods  when  the  amount  of  honey  produced  is 
in  excess  of  the  requirements  of  the  bees  until  the  next 
honey-flow.     This  surplus  may  become  the  beekeeper's.^ 

Periods  of  surplus  depend  solely  on  the  plants  of  the  region 
and  consequently  they  vary  with  different  localities,  as  do 
the  plants.  The  problem  confronting  the  beekeeper,  there- 
fore, is  so  to  manipulate  his  bees  that,  when  nectar  is  avail- 
able near  his  apiary,  the  bees  may  be  in  condition  to  secure 
the  maximum  quantity.  Varying  conditions  call  for  dif- 
ferent systems  of  management.  This  fact  is  well  known 
to  practical  beekeepers  but,  nevertheless,  these  differences 
lead  to  confusion.  For  example,  a  beekeeper  in  the  white 
clover  region  works  out  a  method  by  which  he  is  able  to 
control  swarming  and  thereby  to  secure  maximum  returns. 
The  system  is  published,  whereupon  it  is  perhaps  tried 
by  beekeepers  in  buckwheat,  Spanish  needle  or  alfalfa 
regions.  The  bee  journals  are  probably  then  filled  with 
articles  by  these  men  who  perhaps  report  failure.  There 
would  be  great  good  from  this  interchange  of  results  did 
it  not  tend  too  often  to  create  a  belief  that,  for  example, 
bees  in  Colorado  behave  peculiarly  because  they  are  in 

1  It  may  not  be  amiss  to  call  attention  to  the  incorrectness  of  the  concep- 
tion that  bees  and,  in  fact,  all  plants  and  animals  were  created  or  evolved 
for  the  use  of  man.  It  would  scarcely  be  necessary  to  refer  to  this  were 
it  not  that  frequently  such  statements  appear  in  the  bee  journals.  Not 
until  one  realizes  that  every  species  of  plant  and  animal  is  in  a  struggle 
for  its  own  existence,  without  regard  for  the  welfare  of  any  other  species, 
can  one  get  a  correct  conception  of  the  facts  of  Nature.  The  honeybee 
was  evolved  from  less  specialized  insects  because  the  changes  fitted  it  better 
to  its  environment ;  they  store  honey  because  the  instinct  to  do  so  fits 
them  better  to  their  environment.  The  fact  that  man  can  take  some  of 
this  honey  should  not  cause  him  to  think  that  all  this  course  of  evolution 
was  for  his  benefit. 


The  Cycle  of  the  Year  83 

Colorado.  In  other  words,  the  difference  in  "locality"  is 
too  often  considered  as  a  matter  of  geography.  Obviously, 
political  boundaries  are  nothing  to  bees  and  they  behave 
similarly  everywhere  under  similar  conditions.  The  differ- 
ences lie  in  a  failure  to  observe  and  to  record  the  peculiar 
conditions  of  the  ''locality,"  to  appreciate  the  underlying 
causes  of  the  behavior  of  the  bees  and  to  explain  why  the 
manipulation  is  a  success  or  a  failure,  as  the  case  may  be, 
in  the  light  of  local  conditions.  If  these  distinctions  were 
better  understood,  it  would  save  much  loss  of  effort  and 
many  failures.  Obviously,  a  beekeeper  should  know  not 
only  what  to  do  and  when  to  do  it,  but  why.  It  frequently 
happens  that  a  beekeeper  going  from  one  place  to  another 
attempts  to  follow  his  former  practices  in  the  new  place 
and  usually  this  leads  to  failure. 

The  flows  of  nectar  which  are  of  value  for  surplus  are 
those  which  come  after  the  colonies  are  strong,  but  earlier 
honey-flows  are  of  great  value  in  providing  stores  and  in 
furnishing  a  stimulus  to  breeding.  For  each  situation, 
it  is  therefore  most  desirable  that  the  plants  which  furnish 
nectar  be  known  and  that  the  usual  time  of  blossoming  be 
learned.  With  this  information,  the  beekeeper  can  so 
manipulate  his  colonies  as  to  obtain  maximum  results. 
The  study  of  the  periods  of  blossoming  is  especially  neces- 
sary in  the  more  northern  regions  where  the  honey-flows 
are  sharply  circumscribed.  In  the  South,  the  honey-flows 
more  usually  run  together  and  there  is  less  difficulty  in 
having  colonies  strong  for  the  surplus  honey-flows.  Honey 
plants  do  not  bloom  in  the  same  relative  times  in  different 
localities.  For  example,  in  some  places  white  clover  has 
usually  ceased  to  secrete  nectar  before  the  basswood  honey- 
flow  begins  while  in  others  they  are  mixed.  Following  the 
clover  honey-flow  there  is  often  a  dearth  until  the  fall  flowers 
begin  to  secrete,  but  in  some  northern  localities  white  clover 
may  be  delayed  and  the  fall  flow  advanced  until  they  leave 
practically  no  interval. 

A  current  fallacy  should  perhaps  be  denied.    Bees  do 


84  Beekeeping 

not  cease  to  store  honey  in  the  tropics.  Just  where  a  con- 
trary statement  originated  is  difficult  to  learn,  but  the 
supposed  fact  is  sometimes  used  as  a  demonstration  of  the 
wonderful  wisdom  of  bees  in  learning  that  nectar  is  always 
obtainable.  It  has  also  been  used  as  an  evidence  of  adapta- 
tion. The  great  crops  of  surplus  honey  obtained  in  tropical 
countries  are  sufficient  denial. 

The  gathering  of  nectar  and  the  storage  of  honey  is  a 
pure  instinct,  in  that  it  is  done  without  previous  experience, 
for  a  definite  purpose  and  with  no  knowledge  of  the  end 
to  be  accomplished.  As  will  be  explained  in  the  following 
chapter,  this  is  normally  the  work  of  the  older  bees  in  the 
colony.  The  nectar  is  carried  to  the  hive  in  the  honey 
stomach  (Fig.  60)  where  it  is  regurgitated  into  cells  of  the 
combs.  Here  it  is  ''ripened"  into  honey.  This  ripening 
consists  in  the  removal  of  the  surplus  moisture,  the  water 
in  honey  usually  being  about  twenty  per  cent  of  the  total, 
while  nectar  is  often  over  sixty  per  cent  water.  The  chemical 
composition  of  nectars  has  not  been  sufficiently  studied  and, 
indeed,  this  is  a  hard  problem,  because  of  the  difficulty  of 
obtaining  sufficient  quantities  without  modification.  Enough 
is  known,  however,  to  allow  the  assumption  that  the  ripeniujg 
process  also  includes  the  changing  of  sucrose  (cane  sugar)  into 
invert  sugars  (dextrose  and  levulose). 

In  the  laboratory  inversion  is  accomplished  by  the  addi- 
tion of  an  acid  to  the  cane  sugar  solution  and  there  is  a 
small  amount  of  acid  in  honey.  What  this  acid  is  has  not 
been  determined,  it  being  usually  calculated  in  analyses 
"as  formic  acid,"  which  must  not  be  misinterpreted  as 
indicating  that  the  acid  actually  is  formic  acid.  It  in- 
dicates merely  that  in  the  analysis  the  acidity  is  calculated 
as  if  the  acid  were  formic  acid.  It  was  formerly  believed 
that  the  poison  of  the  bee  sting  is  formic  acid  and  various 
fanciful  theories  have  been  advanced  to  explain  the  origin 
of  the  formic  acid  supposed  to  be  present  in  honey.  The 
worst  of  these  explanations  is  that  just  before  sealing  the 
honey,  a  worker  bee  puts  a  drop  of  poison  from  the  sting 


The  Cycle  of  the  Year  85 

into  the  honey  to  preserve  it.  No  such  action  has  been 
observed.  Possibly  these  speculations  are  the  basis  for  the 
calculation  of  the  acidity  of  honey  by  the  chemist  "  as  formic." 

The  conversion  of  sucrose  to  invert  sugars  may  also  be 
accomplished  by  the  action  of  enzymes  and  the  bee  pro- 
duces these,  although  what  part  of  the  bee's  body  is  the 
origin  of  the  enzymes  is  not  yet  fully  established.  Honey, 
as  stored  in  cells,  contains  some  suspended  pollen  grains 
which  are  a  probable  additional  source  of  enzymes.  In- 
version doubtless  continues  after  the  honey  is  sealed. 

The  instinct  to  gather  nectar  and  to  store  honey  is  not 
universally  predominant  in  the  activities  of  a  colony,  even 
though  nectar  is  available.  When  a  colony  is  preparing 
to  swarm  it  does  not  store  as  actively  as  at  other  times  and 
one  of  the  serious  problems  of  the  northern  beekeeper, 
especially  the  comb-honey  producer,  is  to  keep  his  bees  in 
proper  condition  for  storing.  Since  swarming  and  storing 
are  both  instinctive  activities,  the  substitution  of  one  for 
the  other  assuredly  does  not  imply  knowledge  of  future 
needs,  as  is  sometimes  claimed.  After  swarming  is  over, 
the  storing  instinct  appears  as  prominently  as  usual. 

Collection  of  other  materials. 

The  gathering  of  pollen  and  propolis  and  the  collection  of 
water  are  likewise  activities  of  the  colony.  It  is  sometimes 
stated  that  pollen  is  gathered  only  when  needed  but  this 
is  not  true,  for  queenless  colonies  gather  large  quantities. 
The  advice  is  occasionally  given  to  watch  the  entrances  of 
colonies  in  the  spring  to  determine  whether  pollen  is  coming 
in,  it  being  stated  that  queenless  colonies  may  be  detected 
by  a  lack  of  pollen  gathering.  This  is  not  a  safe  criterion. 
Propolis  is  collected  most  abundantly  in  the  late  summer 
and  autumn  and  usually  only  when  there  is  no  heavy  nectar- 
flow.  Water  is  needed  at  practically  all  times  during  the 
breeding  season,  perhaps  more  especially  in  hot  weather. 
The  bringing  of  water  to  the  hive  is  most  noticeable  in  the 
early  spring. 


86  Beekeeping 


KILLING   OF   THE   DRONES 

At  the  close  of  the  honey-flow  and  after  the  swarming 
season,  the  drones  are  driven  from  the  hive.  They  are 
not  stung  to  death  as  is  commonly  reported.  The  first 
indication  of  the  exodus  of  the  drones  is  that  numbers  of 
them  are  seen  on  the  bottom  board  or  around  the  entrance. 
There  is  some  evidence  that  before  removal  the  drones 
are  starved,  they  normally  being  fed  by  the  workers  and 
not  taking  food  directly  from  the  stores.  Then  the  worker 
bees  drag  them  out  one  by  one  and  fly  away,  dropping 
them  some  distance  from  the  hive.  This  driving  out  of 
the  drones  is  more  marked  in  the  northern  regions  where 
the  main  honey-flow  usually  ceases  abruptly.  If  a  colony 
is  queenless  the  drones  may  be  retained,  some  of  them  often 
living  into  the  winter  and,  even  in  normal  colonies,  a  few 
drones  are  sometimes  retained  for  a  time.  The  cause  of 
the  driving  out  of  the  drones  in  most  cases  and  their  reten- 
tion under  some  conditions  is  so  far  not  satisfactorily  ex- 
plained. 

THE   END   OF  BROOD-REARING 

Where  winter  occurs  brood-rearing  ceases  in  the  autumn, 
while  in  the  tropics  brood  is  reared  constantly,  unless  it  is 
discontinued  by  a  dearth.  Cessation  of  brood-rearing  is 
therefore  not  a  necessary  occurrence  in  the  annual  cycle. 
It  was  shown  earlier  that  the  reduction  in  egg-laying  begins 
with  the  cutting  off  of  the  nectar-flow.  When  the  days 
become  cold,  brood  is  no  longer  reared  and  finally  the  last 
of  the  brood  emerges  leaving  the  colony  without  brood  for 
most  of  the  winter,  provided  it  remains  normal.  The  last 
eggs  laid  may  be  removed  by  the  workers  before  they  hatch, 
or  larvae  and  pupae  may  be  carried  out. 

In  seeking  an  explanation  of  the  stoppage  in  brood-rearing, 
one  becomes  involved  in  some  difficulties.  In  the  first  place, 
various  races  of  bees  differ  in  regard  to  the  amount  and 
continuance  of  brood-rearing  in  the  autumn.     Itahan  bees 


The  Cycle  of  the  Year  87 

decrease  the  amount  of  brood  when  the  honey-flow  stops 
while  Carniolan  and  Caucasian  bees  rear  more  brood  ''out 
of  season,"  or  after  the  honey-flow.  But  all  races  rear 
some  brood  "out  of  season,"  so  that  the  final  discontinuance 
of  brood-rearing  cannot  be  considered  as  due  to  lack  of 
incoming  nectar  or  pollen.  Even  among  colonies  of  the 
same  race  there  is  considerable  variation  in  a  single  apiary. 
Of  course,  no  colony  can  rear  brood  without  food  for  the 
young  larvae.  The  stoppage  of  brood-rearing  is  sometimes 
attributed  to  low  outside  temperature  but,  as  stated  earlier, 
brood  is  sometimes  reared  in  the  coldest  months,  in  fact 
it  is  usually  begun  then  in  colonies  wintered  out  of  doors. 
As  will  appear  later,  the  cold  outside  during  January  is 
the  cause  of  a  higher  temperature  within  the  cluster  than 
is  usual  in  the  autumn  and,  combined  with  the  effects  of 
the  accumulation  of  feces,  is  the  cause  of  higher  cluster 
temperature  than  occurs  with  the  same  intensity  of  cold 
in  December.  Furthermore,  when  a  colony  begins  brood- 
rearing  in  the  winter,  the  presence  of  brood  seems  to  induce 
the  production  of  sufficient  heat  to  care  for  it,  the  resulting 
temperature  being  sufficient  to  induce  more  egg-laying,  so 
that  brood-rearing  once  begun  continues  through  the  re- 
mainder of  the  winter.  Since  a  moderately  low  outer  tem- 
perature may  cause  more  active  heat  production  in  a  small 
colony  than  in  a  strong  one,  this  may  explain  some  of  the 
variation  observed  in  the  time  that  brood-rearing  ceases. 
A  small  colony  may  have  a  higher  cluster  temperature  than 
a  strong  colony,  the  greater  activity  in  the  center  of  the 
cluster  being  necessary  to  produce  the  required  temperature 
in  the  shell  of  the  cluster,  which  is  a  less  efficient  insulator 
in  a  weak  colony.  The  structure  of  the  cluster  is  described 
in  the  following  section.  If  an  explanation  for  the  cessation 
of  brood-rearing  is  sought,  the  paradoxical  conclusion  is 
reached  that  in  the  fall  (1)  the  outside  temperature  is  not 
high  enough  for  brood-rearing  without  artificial  heat  pro- 
duction and  (2)  it  is  not  low  enough  to  cause  the  bees  to 
produce    sufficient    cluster    heat    for    brood-rearing.     Egg- 


88  Beekeeping 

laying    and    brood-rearing    may    seemingly    be    stimulated 
either  by  a  high  or  very  low  outside  temperature. 


THE   WINTER   CLUSTER 

There  are  three  possible  ways  by  which  an  animal  can 
survive  a  protracted  period  of  adversity  like  a  northern 
winter,  when  food  is  not  available  in  the  field  and  when  it 
could  not  get  food  even  if  it  were  present,  because  of  the 
cold.  The  first  method  is  hibernation,  in  which  the  only 
storage  of  food  is  within  the  animal,  and  at  low  temperatures 
the  vital  functions  apparently  cease.  This  is  the  universal 
mode  of  wintering  among  solitary  insects  and,  even  among 
the  social  species,  in  bumblebees  and  wasps,  the  majority 
of  the  colony  die  off  while  the  fertile  queens  hibernate  like 
solitary  insects.  Ants  hibernate  in  a  mass  during  extreme 
cold  weather.  Another  method  is  migration,  but  this  is 
not  open  to  most  insects  because  of  their  size  and  inability 
to  fly  lotig  distances,  as  do  birds.  If  a  cold-blooded  animal 
cannot  hibernate,  as  the  honeybee  apparently  cannot,  nor 
migrate,  there  is  but  one  course  open  to  it.  This  is  to  lay 
up  a  store  of  heat-producing  food  and,  when  the  surround- 
ing temperature  falls  below  that  at  which  the  animal  can 
live,  to  generate  heat,  virtually  to  create  a  thermal  environ- 
ment of  its  own.  This  remarkable  procedure,  in  which 
the  honeybee  is  unique  among  insects,  is  the  one  encountered 
in  a  study  of  bees  in  winter.  Beekeepers  have  long  known 
that  the  winter  cluster  is  warm  but  they  have  perhaps  failed 
to  coinprehend  the  marvel  of  an  insect  which  can  use  this 
method  of  overcoming  adverse  conditions. 

The  hoarding  instinct,  the  instinct  to  store  food  in  great 
excess  of  the  immediate  needs,  now  becomes  of  vital  im- 
portance to  the  continuance  of  the  species,  but  it  would 
serve  no  useful  purpose  in  the  winter  season  if  the  bees  in  a 
colony  did  not  also  have  the  ability  to  generate  and  con- 
serve heat.  As  will  be  seen  later,  the  generation  of  heat 
is  by  a  method  common  to  all  insects  and  other  cold-blooded 


The  Cycle  of  the  Year  89 

animals  while  the  conservation  of  heat  depends  chiefly  on 
the  structure  of  the  winter  cluster. 

When  the  last  brood  has  emerged,  the  colony  and  its 
nest  are  then  in  condition  to  pass  the  winter.  In  cold 
weather  the  bees  form  a  single  compact  cluster  and  leave 
the  hive  only  on  occasional  warm  days  for  cleansing  flights. 
Bees  do  not  discharge  their  feces  in  the  hive  so  long  as  they 
are  in  normal,  healthy  condition  but)  after  even  a  short 
confinement,  will  venture  out  for  this  purpose  as  soon  as 
the  outside  temperature  permits.^ 

Movements  in  winter. 

The  cluster  is  first  normally  formed  where  the  last  brood 
emerged;  here  the  bees  find  empty  cells  into  which  to 
crawl,  so  that  they  form  themselves  into  a  compact  mass, 
separated  only  by  thin  walls  of  wax.  They  do  not  form 
the  winter  cluster  where  the  combs  are  filled  with  honey 
and  it  would  probably  be  impossible  for  them  to  conserve 
the  heat  of  the  cluster  if  sheets  of  honey  separated  the  bees 
in  adjacent  spaces.  As  the  contiguous  stores -are  consumed 
and  additional  cells  are  emptied,  the  cluster  is  shifted  so 
that  the  bees  are  always  near  stores.  This  shifting  is,  how- 
ever, apparently  impossible  in  extreme  cold  weather,  when 
colonies  sometimes  die  in  a  way  that  can  be  explained  only 
as  due  to  starvation  through  inability  to  reach  stores  just 
a  few  inches  distant.  The  early  fall  cluster  is  usually  low 
on  the  combs,  near  the  entrance,  if  there  is  considerable 
honey  stored  and  the  movement  of  the  cluster  is  usually 
upward  and  toward  the  rear  of  the  hive  as  winter  progresses, 
and  as  stores  are  consumed.  If  a  colony  is  in  a  two-story 
hive,  the  cluster  is  often  in  the  upper  story  in  the  spring. 

Responses  to  outside  temperature. 

The  cluster  varies  in  size  with  the  outside  temperature. 
After  the  emergence  of  the  last  brood  in  the  fall,  if  the 

1  Bees  often  remain  in  the  hive  at  a  temperature  of  70°  F.  if  a  flight  is 
not  necessary,  but  will  often  fly  when  the  temperature  is  about  50°  F.  if 
they  have  been  confined  for  a  time. 


90  Beekeeping 

temperature  is  about  60°  F.,  the  bees  do  not  cluster  com- 
pactly and  do  not  fly  from  the  hive,  even  on  bright  days, 
but  remain  inactive  on  the  combs.  In  this  condition  they 
are  less  active  than  at  any  other  time  in  the  cycle  of  the 
colony  and  approach  most  nearly  to  a  condition  of  hiberna- 
tion. During  the  warmer  days  there  is  no  need  of  a  tight 
cluster,  for  the  function  of  the  cluster  is  the  conservation  of 
the  heat  generated  within.  When  the  temperature  is  suffi- 
ciently high  the  bees  generate  no  heat  but,  whenever  the 
temperature  of  the  air  immediately  surrounding  the  bees 
drops  below  57°  F.  (the  lowest  temperature  which  normal 
bees  ever  experience  in  the  hive),  they  form  a  definite  cluster. 
As  the  outside  temperature  continues  to  fall,  the  cluster 
becomes  more  and  more  compact  and  the  temperature  of 
the  inside  of  the  cluster  increases  rapidly.  After  the  genera- 
tion of  heat  is  begun,  the  temperature  within  the  cluster 
soon  reaches  a  point  higher  than  that  reached  before  heat 
generation  was  necessary.  Within  certain  limits,  the  tem- 
perature of  the  cluster  increases  as  the  outside  temperature 
drops  and,  as  the  outer  temperature  again  rises,  heat  gen- 
eration is  reduced  or  discontinued  while  the  temperature  of 
the  cluster  drifts  to  meet  the  rising  outside  temperature. 
Heat  generation  is  renewed  if  the  outer  temperature  again 
drops,  even  though  the  temperature  of  the  cluster  and  that 
of  the  outer  air  have  not  yet  been  equalized.  This  pro- 
duces a  peculiar  inverse  relationship  between  the  outer 
and  cluster  temperatures.  It  is  of  particular  practical 
importance  that,  within  certain  definite  Hmits,  the  bees  are 
not  compelled  to  produce  heat. 

Conservation  of  heat. 

The  cluster  consists  of  a  hollow  sphere  of  bees  several 
layers  thick,  those  between  the  combs  with  their  thoraces 
in  contact  and  abdomens  extending  outward.  The  cells 
within  the  cluster  are  also  filled  with  bees.  The  hair  on 
the  thorax  assists  in  making  this  living  shell  an  excellent 
non-conductor  of  heat,  so  effective  in  fact  that  a  point  in- 


The  Cycle  of  the  Year  91 

side  the  cluster  may  sometimes  be  100°  F.  warmer  than  a 
point  a  few  inches  away  but  outside  the  cluster.  The 
number  of  inactive  bees  varies  with  the  outer  temperature, 
being  larger  at  warmer  temperatures  when  less  heat  produc- 
tion is  required  and  smaller  when  more  bees  are  engaged  in 
activities  involved  in  heat  production. 

Source  of  heat. 

Within  the  hollow  sphere  are  bees  which  move  about 
freely,  these  being  the  ones  most  concerned  in  heat  genera- 
tion. They  produce  heat  by  muscular  activity,  such  as 
movements  of  the  legs  and  abdomen,  but  perhaps  most 
effectually  by  vigorous  fanning.  The  bees  which  form  the 
shell  constantly  shift  their  positions  and  exchange  places 
with  bees  from  within.  A  bee  from  the  center  forces  its 
way  head  first  through  the  shell,  then  turns  around  and 
remains  for  a  time  on  the  outside  layer.  The  shifting  seems 
to  be  more  rapid  in  cold  weather  than  in  mild. 

Effect  of  accumulation  of  feces. 

During  the  winter,  the  bees  consume  the  honey  stored  dur- 
ing the  summer.  The  undigested  portion,  which  forms 
excreta,  is  retained  in  the  rectal  ampulla  (hind-intestine) 
until  the  bees  have  opportunity  for  flight,  for  normally  no 
feces  are  deposited  by  the  workers  within  the  hive.  Dur- 
ing the  cold  winters  of  the  North  there  are  times  when 
bees  cannot  fly  for  several  weeks  and  the  generation  of  heat 
during  such  a  period  of  cold  weather  requires  increased 
consumption  of  food  and  causes  an  increase  in  the  amount 
of  feces.  The  presence  of  feces,  on  the  other  hand,  causes 
the  bees  to  become  restless,  to  generate  still  more  heat  (see 
Fig.  145)  and  to  accumulate  still  more  feces.  Apparently 
a  colony  in  winter  confinement  is  in  the  confines  of  a  vicious 
circle  and  the  successful  wintering  depends  preeminently 
on  good  food.  If,  however,  the  colony  is  so  placed  that 
Httle  or  no  heat  must  be  produced,  the  situation  is  relieved 
and  this  the  beekeeper  accomphshes  by  placing  colonies 


92  Beekeeping 

in  the  cellar,  provided  conditions  within  the  cellar  are 
correct. 

Bees  wintering  in  the  open  fly  out  whenever  the  outside 
temperature  will  permit,  and  after  a  considerable  period  of 
confinement  many  will  fly  out  when  it  is  so  cold  that  they 
are  unable  to  return.  On  these  winter  flights  the  feces 
are  voided,  consequently  they  are  of  the  highest  value  to  a 
colony  wintered  out  of  doors. 

While  numerous  other  points  concerning  the  activities 
of  bees  in  winter  are  left  to  be  discussed  in  the  chapter  on 
wintering,  it  is  evident  from  what  has  been  said  that  bees 
are  highly  sensitive  to  changes  in  temperature,  and  that 
they  have  a  wonderful  ability  to  overcome  the  adverse 
conditions  of  winter  by  the  generation  of  heat.  It  is  to  be 
noticed  especially  that  they  usually  do  not  warm  the  whole 
hive  or  cavity  but  confine  heat  production  to  the  cluster. 
It  might  therefore  be  concluded  that  a  hive  is  actually  little 
protection  for  them  in  winter  but  it  should  be  remembered 
that  this  protects  them  from  wind,  rain  and  snow.  They 
further  seal  the  hive  with  propolis  to  make  the  top  water- 
and  even  air-tight  and  some  races  contract  the  entrance 
with  propolis.  The  practical  bearing  of  these  facts  forms 
one  of  the  most  vital  problems  of  the  northern  beekeeper 
and  the  discussion  of  this  subject  from  the  standpoint  of 
practice  forms  a  later  chapter. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  LIFE  OF   THE  INDIVIDUAL  IN  RELATION 
TO   THE  COLONY 

In  the  preceding  chapter  the  activities  of  the  colony  are 
discussed,  much  as  if  the  colony  were  an  individual  or  unit. 
While  this  is  a  true  picture  of  one  side  of  the  life  of  the  species, 
it  is  not  complete,  for  the  individuals  not  only  carry  on  their 
own  life  processes  but  pass  through  individual  cycles.  A 
knowledge  of  the  interrelationships  of  the  individuals  within 
the  colony  is  important  for  an  understanding  of  the  colony 
organization,  for  this  complex  society  is  based  on  a  division 
of  the  labors  of  the  hive,  which  is  of  the  highest  interest  and 
of  the  greatest  practical  value  to  the  beekeeper.  While 
in  this  book  there  is  no  attempt  at  a  complete  discussion  of 
the  anatomy  or  development  of  the  bee,  it  is  necessary  that 
these  subjects  receive  some  attention  to  outline  correctly 
the  little  that  is  known  concerning  the  physiology  of  the 
species.  The  discussion  of  physiology  is  reserved  for  another 
chapter. 

DEVELOPMENTAL   STAGES 

This  subject  is  one  of  mystery  to  the  beekeeper.  While 
the  development  of  the  bee  in  the  egg  has  been  investigated 
by  several  observers,^  the  papers  on  the  subject  are  not 

1  Butschli,  O.,  1870.  Zur  Entwicklungsgeschichte  der  Biene.  Zeit. 
f.  wiss.  ZooL,  XX. 

Kowalevski,  A.,  1871.  Embryologische  Studien  an  Wurmern  und  Arthro- 
poden.     M^m.  acad.  imp6r.  sci.  St.    P6tersbourg,   (7)  XVI,  12,  pp.  1-70. 

Grassi,  Battista,  1882-84.    Studi  sugli  artropodi.    Intorno  alio  sviluppo 

93 


94  Beekeeping 

readily  accessible  to  beekeepers,  and  writers  of  books  on 
beekeeping  have  not  given  to  this  subject  as  careful  consider- 
ation as  to  the  anatomy  of  the  adult  bee.  The  changes 
taking  place  during  metamorphosis  (pupa  stage)  are  so 
wonderfully  complex  that  an  account  of  the  transformation 
of  the  larva  into  an  adult  bee  is  almost  unbelievable.^  Be- 
cause of  the  lack  of  attention  given  to  the  development  of 
the  bee  in  the  Uterature  on  beekeeping,  relatively  more  at- 
tention is  here  given  it  than  to  the  anatomy  of  the  adult  bee. 

Cellular  structure  of  tissues. 

To  form  a  correct  understanding  of  the  development  of 
the  bee  or  of  the  structure  of  the  adult,  one  must  know  some- 
thing of  the  units  of  which  the  tissues  are  formed,  called 
cells.  This  word,  as  used  by  the  biologist,  has  a  special 
significance,  being  applied  to  a  type  of  structure  which  makes 
up  the  tissues  of  all  plants  and  animals.  This  unit  of  struc- 
ture is  usually  microscopic  and  a  single  organ  of  the  bee 
may  contain  many  thousands  of  them.  The  cell  consists 
of  a  minute  mass  of  protoplasm  (Uving  substance)  contain- 
ing a  nucleus  2  (Fig.  50).  Protoplasm  is  a  complex  organic 
substance  characterized  by  life;   the  nucleus  is  a  differenti- 

dell  Api  neir  uovo.  Atti  dell'  Acad.  Gioenia  di  scienze  nat.  in  Catania, 
Ser.  3,  XVIII,  pp.  145-222. 

Dickel,  O.,  1904.  Entwicklungsgeschichtliche  Studien  am  Bienenei. 
Leipzig :    Engelmann. 

The  work  of  Carrifere  u.  Burger  (1898,  Entwicklungsgeschichte  der 
Mauerbiene.  Abhdl.  der  kaiserl.  Leop.  Carol.  Deutsch.  Akad.  der  Naturf., 
LXIX,  2)  on  the  mason  bee,  Calicodoma,  is  of  value  in  a  study  of  tl^is  sub- 
ject. The  recent  work  of  Dr.  Jas.  A.  Nelson  of  the  Bureau  of  Entomology 
(1915,  The  embryology  of  the  honeybee.  Princeton  University  Press) 
is  the  most  complete  on  this  subject  and  is  the  most  thorough  work  on  the 
development  of  any  insect.  It  is  the  only  discussion  of  the  embryology  of 
the  bee  in  English  and  should  be  consulted  by  any  one  interested  in  this 
phase  of  the  life  of  the  bee.  The  author  is  indebted  to  Doctor  Nelson  for 
help  in  the  preparation  of  this  section. 

*  The  metamorphosis  of  the  bee  is  described  in  detail  by  Anglas,  J., 
1900.  Observations  sur  les  metamorphoses  internes  de  la  gu^pe  et  de 
I'abeille.     Ill  pp.     Lille:  Danel. 

2  This  word,  like  "cell,"  is  one  of  various  meanings.  It  is  used  by  the 
beekeeper  to  designate  a  small  colony. 


The  Life  of  the  Individual 


95 


ated  portion  of  the  protoplasm  which  is  especially  active 
during  the  division  of  cells  and  carries  the  special  organs 
(chromosomes),  instrumental  as  the  bearers  of  hereditary 
characters.  The  nucleus  and  surrounding  protoplasm  are 
closely  united  in  their  functions  and  are  incapable  of  sepa- 
rate existence.  The  nucleus  is,  in  its  resting  condition, 
usually  rounded  in  form,  while  the  remaining  protoplasm 
is  of  various  shapes  according  to  the  special  functions  of  the 
cell.  Protoplasm  'is  characterized  by  ability  to  take  in 
nourishment,  to  grow, 
to  give  off  waste,  to 
divide  and  to  move  in 
response  to  stimuU,  but 
in  each  organ  the  cells 
become  speciaUzed  to 
do  some  one  thing  .es- 
pecially well  and  they 
often  lose  some  of  the 
functions  of  primitive 
protoplasm.  For  exam- 
ple, a  nerve  cell  loses  its 
power  of  contractility 
but  becomes  speciaUzed 
for  transmitting  nervous 
impulses,  while  a  muscle 
cell  has  a  marked  power  of  contractility.  A  detailed  discus- 
sion of  the  structure  and  function  of  the  various  parts  of 
the  cell  in  different  tissues  is,  of  course,  impossible  here,^ 
but  these  few  suggestions  are  sufficient  to  indicate  the  ex- 
treme complexity  of  the  organization  of  each  tissue  that 
goes  to  make  up  any  organism,  such  as  the  bee. 

The  egg. 

The  egg,  as  it  leaves  the  ovaries  of  the  queen  where  it  is 
formed,  is  essentially  a  single  cell.     The  eggs  of  most  ani- 

1  The  interested  reader  is  referred  to  Wilson,  E.  B.,  The  cell  in  development 
and  inheritance.     New  York :  Macmillan,  and  to  other  works  on  cytology. 


Fig.  50. 


Group  of  tissue  cells  from  skin 
of  young  salamander. 


96  Beekeeping 

mals  known  to  the  layman  require  fertilization  (a  union  with 
one  of  the  reproductive  cells  of  the  male)  before  they  can 
develop,  but  there  are  many  cases  in  which  this  is  not  neces- 
sary and  the  development  of  the  drone  bee  is  of  this  char- 
acter. The  eggs  which  develop  into  females  are,  however, 
fertiUzed.  This  difference  has  so  important  a  bearing  on 
practical  beekeeping  that  a  discussion  of  it  is  reserved  for  a 
future  chapter. 

The  egg  of  the  bee  is  a  small  white*  cyUndrical  object 
about  tV  of  an  inch  long,  somewhat  larger  at  one  end  (future 
head  end)  and  slightly  curved.  It  is  deposited  on  the  base 
of  the  cell  of  the  comb  by  the  queen  and  is  fastened  in  place 
by  a  secretion.  The  head  end  of  the  future  larva  is  always 
formed  away  from  the  point  of  attachment.  The  egg  is 
covered  by  chorion,  a  thin,  tough  membrane,  the  surface 
of  which  is  ridged.  These  ridges  are,  however,  quite  minute 
and  are  not  so  conspicuous  as  most  illustrations  of  bee  eggb 
would  indicate.  In  addition  to  the  nucleus  and  surrounding 
protoplasm,  the  bee  egg  contains  a  relatively  large  amount 
of  non-living  stored  food,  yolk.  The  embryo  is  formed  on 
the  convex  side  of  the  curve  of  the  egg,  which  becomes  the 
ventral  side  of  the  larva.  The  fate  of  the  various  parts 
of  the  egg  is  therefore  in  a  sense  determined.  Because  of 
the  presence  of  so  much  yolk,  the  early  cells  are  not  clearly 
marked  off  from  one  another. 

Early  embryonic  development. 

Development  consists  of  the  repeated  division  of  the  egg 
cell  into  numbers  of  united  cells  and  of  the  rearrangement 
and  differentiation  of  the  resulting  cells  to  form  definite 
organs.  As  development  proceeds,  the  cells  become  more 
and  more  specialized  until  the  final  adult  condition  is  reached, 
and  even  in  the  adult,  certain  changes  in  some  cells  continue 
through  the  life  of  the  individual.  As  cell  division  (or  rather, 
in  this  case,  nuclear  division,  for  the  protoplasm  is  continu- 
ous in  the  early  stages)  progresses,  the  nuclei  move  from 
the  interior  to  the  surface.     During  the  second  half  of  the 


The  Life  of  the  Individual 


97 


second  day,  a  thickening  appears  on  the  convex  side,  and, 
on  the  anterior  end  (larger  end)  of  the  egg,  the  first  indica- 
tions of  the  future  appendages  are  soon  visible  (Fig.  51,  a 
and  6).  These  consist  of  the  rudiments  of  the  antennae 
(Ant)  and  mouth  parts  (mandible,  Md  and  maxillae,  IMx, 
2Mx)  on  the  head  and  of  the  three  pairs  of  legs  {IL,  2L,  3L) 
on  the  thorax.  These  rudiments  are  simply  slightly  rounded 
swellings  which  are  at  first  smaller  toward  the  posterior 
end  of  the  egg,  since  development  progresses  from  the  an- 
terior end.     The  embryo  shows   at  first  no  division  into 


Fig.  51.  —  Three  stages  in  the  development  of  the  embryo. 


head,  thorax  and  abdomen,  but  the  fate  of  the  various 
swellings  must  be  determined  by  following  them  through. 
The  rudiments  of  the  stigmata  {Sp,  openings  of  the  tracheal 
system)  appear  early  and  the  first  evidence  of  the  silk  glands 
(SlkGl)  becomes  visible  about  the  same  time  just  behind  the 
second  maxillae.  The  first  external  indication  of  the  nerv- 
ous system  is  in  two  pairs  of  swellings  (Br)  on  the  upper 
side  of  the  head.  Even  in  this  early  stage,  a  number  of 
important  organs  are  already  outlined. 


98  Beekeeping 

Later  embryonic  development. 

In  a  later  stage  (Fig.  51,  c),  the  embryonic  band  on  the 
ventral  side  of  the  egg  has  widened  and  in  the  next  stage 
here  illustrated  (Fig.  51,  d)  the  band  completely  envelops 
the  egg.  In  the  stage  shown  in  Fig.  51,  c  the  mouth  {Mth) 
and  anus  {An)  have  appeared  as  pits.  These  continue  to 
grow  into  the  egg  and  ultimately  join  with  certain  cells  on  the 
interior  to  complete  the  alimentary  canal.  The  portions 
formed  by  the  two  invaginations  from  the  outside  are  the 
fore-  and  hind-intestine,  while  the  part  arising  from  the 
interior  is  the  mid-intestine.  The  Malpighian  tubes  (MT), 
the  excretory  organs,  arise  as  outgrowths  from  the  anterior 
end  of  the  hind-intestine.  The  pits  (Sp)  which  are  the  rudi- 
ments of  the  spiracles,  deepen  and  send  branches  forward, 
backward  and  downward  to  meet  corresponding  outgrowths 
from  other  pits,  finally  forming  the  tracheal  trunks  with 
their  commissures  and  branches.  The  silk  glands  (SlkGl), 
which  function  only  in  the  larva,  project  backward  as  long 
tubes. 

Segmentation. 

The  most  striking  feature  of  the  late  embryo  is  the  fact 
that  it  is  constricted  into  a  series  of  segments  (metameres 
or  somites)  which  are  plainly  recognized  in  the  larva.  These 
segments  are  characteristic  of  all  insects  and  part  of  the 
metameres  of  the  abdomen  are  still  plainly  marked  off  in 
the  adult.  From  the  fact  that  segmentation  is  recognizable 
in  various  parts  of  adult  insects  and  is  present  in  insect 
embryos,  it  is  assumed  that  this  form  is  characteristic  of  the 
primitive  organism  from  which  all  insects  have  arisen.  The 
typical  appendages  are  arranged  in  pairs  on  the  segments 
but  in  their  later  development  these  appendages  are  modified 
according  to  their  fate.  The  stigmata  and  the  ganglia  of 
the  nervous  system  are  also  arranged  segmentally  at  first, 
but  this  primitive  arrangement  is  later  partially  lost.  The 
segmentation  of  various  species  studied  does  not  wholly 
agree,  but  it  is  usually  assumed  that  the  first  six  or  seven 


The  Llje  oj  the  Individual  99 

segments  coalesce  to  form  the  adult  head,  the  next  three 
the  typical  insect  thorax,  and  the  remaining  ones,  usually 
twelve  ^  in  number,  form  the  abdomen.  The  thorax  of  the 
adult  bee  is  not  t3^ical,  as  will  be  explained  later. 

Fate  of  parts  of  the  embryo. 

Some  of  the  head  appendages  of  the  embryo  disappear 
early,  being  rudimentary  organs.  For  example,  the  append- 
ages of  the  second  segment  become  the  antennae  while  those 
of  the  third  disappear  in  insects,  but  in  Crustacea  {e.g. 
shrimps  and  lobsters)  form  the  second  antennae.  Several 
of  the  segments  of  the  primitive  insect  head  are  not  recog- 
nizable in  the  bee.  In  the  adult  insect,  these  segments  fuse 
completely  and  by  growth  of  various  parts  are  so  distorted 
that  an  examination  of  the  adult  head  does  not  suggest 
segmentation  and,  without  a  study  of  the  developmental 
stages,  this  segmental  origin  would  be  unsuspected. 

The  three  thoracic  segments  are  fused  in  the  adult  bee 
but,  since  the  three  pairs  of  legs  arise  from  them,  the  seg- 
mental origin  is  suggested.  The  wings  arise  as  secondary 
outgrowths  or  appendages,  dorsal  to  the  legs,  from  the  two 
posterior  thoracic  segments  and  do  not  correspond  with 
other  appendages.  In  the  adult  bee,  the  first  abdominal 
segment  is  also  fused  with  the  true  thoracic  segments  to 
form  the  part  known  as  the  thorax,  which  therefore  does 
not  correspond  exactly  with  the  thorax  of  lower  orders  of 
insects.  This  fusion  also  occurs  in  most  of  the  other  Hy- 
menoptera.  The  remaining  posterior  segments  form  the 
abdomen  of  the  adult  but  not  all  of  the  segments  remain 
visible  to  the  outside.  In  the  adult  worker  and  queen  bee, 
the  five  posterior  segments  are  turned  in  to  form  a  pocket 
around  the  sting  and  anus.  In  the  drone,  only  four  segments 
are  so  turned  in. 

The  embryo,  just  before  leaving  the  egg,  shows  no  rudi- 
ments of  antennae  or  legs,  these  temporarily  disappearing. 

1  Two  of  these  segments  are  obscure  and  in  later  stages  there  appear  to 
be  present. only  ten. 


100 


Beekeeping 


The  nervous  system  is  now  well  organized,  consisting  of  the 
brain  and  a  chain  of  ganglia  arranged  segmentally.  The 
second  maxillae  fuse  to  form  the  lower  Hp  {Lh). 

Larval  development. 

At  the  end  of  about  three  days  of  embryonic  development, 
the  embryo  breaks  the  chorion  and  becomes  a  young  larva. 
During  the  larval  period  the  most  striking  feature  is  the 
enormous  growth  of  the  animal.  The  illustration  on  page 
40  (Fig.  35)  shows  an  egg,  a  relatively  young  larva,  a  fully 

grown  larva  and  a  pupa 
drawn  to  the  same  scale 
and,  when  it  is  realized 
that  the  growth  from 
the  youngest  larva  to 
the  fully  grown  larva 
takes  place  in  a  few 
days,  the  rapidity  of 
growth  is  astonishing. 

It  should  be  pointed 
out  that  the  development 
of  all  insects  is  not  simi- 
lar. In  the  grasshopper, 
for  example,  a  young 
insect  hatches  from  the  egg  which  resembles  the  adult  in 
most  respects.  Such  a  development  is  known  as  incomplete 
metamorphosis.  In  the  higher  orders  of  insects,  there 
hatches  from  the  egg  a  larva  unlike  the  adult  and  usually 
more  or  less  worm-like,  which  when  fully  fed  undergoes  a 
complete  and  relatively  sudden  change  into  the  adult.  This 
type  of  development  is  known  as  complete  metamorphosis. 
The  bee  larva  is  an  extremely  simple  organism,  lacking 
legs,  wings,  antennae  a,nd  eyes,  and  is  unprotected  by  hairs 
or  thick  chitin.  A  longitudinal  section  through  the  larva 
(Fig.  52)  shows  that  the  largest  organ  is  the  stomach,  as 
is  necessary  for  excessive  growth.  Being  protected  from 
enemies  and  from  adverse  environmental  conditions  in  the 


Fig.  52.  —  Diagram  of  a  longitudinal  me 
dian  section  of  a  bee  larva. 


The  Life  of  the  Individual  101 

cells  of  the  comb,  the  bee  larva  needs  no  protective  covering 
and,  being  fed  by  the  worker  bees,^  it  does  not  need  organs 
which  will  enable  it  to  Sv;ek  or  even  to  detect  food  or  to  masti- 
cate solid  food.  It  is  ideally  adapted  to  the  protected  condi- 
tion in  which  it  is  placed  in  the  colony  scheme  and  quickly 
perishes  if  removed  and  exposed  to  adverse  conditions. 

Metamorphosis. 

After  the  excessive  growth,  the  larva  is  sealed  in  the  cell 
with  a  capping  of  wax  (Fig.  39)  and  it  then  spins  a  delicate 
silken  cocoon  with  the  secretion  of  the  silk  glands  (SlkGl) 
within  the  cell.  Soon  after  this,  all  external  motion  ceases 
and  the  animal  begins  to  undergo  that  wonderful  series  of 
changes  known  as  metamorphosis.  During  the  larval 
growth  the  mid-intestine  and  hind-intestine  are  not  con- 
nected (Fig.  52)  but  this  connection  is  made  after  sealing 
and  the  feces  of  the  larva  are  then  cast  out. 

The  organs  which  served  the  larva  are  of  course  not  suit- 
able for  the  adult  insect  and  the  changes  necessary  to  obtain 
suitable  adult  organs  take  place  in  the  pupal  stage.  Anglas 
has  described  many  of  these  changes  but  the  metamorphosis 
of  insects  is  so  complex  and  so  much  disputed  by  various 
workers  that  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  changes  in  the  bee 
may  be  again  investigated.  The  simple  alimentary  canal 
of  the  larva  is  discarded  and  a  new  one  is  formed  in  its  place. 
The  segmentally  arranged  muscles  of  the  larva  either  dis- 
appear or  are  changed  into  those  of  the  adult.  The  nervous 
system  apparently  loses  some  of  the  segmental  ganglia  by 
the  fusion  of  various  ganglion  pairs.  The  antennae,  eyes, 
legs  and  wings  develop  from  rudiments  which  have  remained 
undeveloped  in  the  larva.  Not  only  do  the  internal  organs 
change  and  new  structures  appear  but  the  animal  changes 

1  The  larva  of  the  honeybee  is  fed  frequently  during  the  period  of  rapid 
growth.  In  bumblebees  (Bombus)  and  stingless  bees  (Melipona  and 
Trigona),  a  cell  is  filled  with  a  mixture  of  pollen  and  nectar,  after  which 
the  queen  lays  an  egg  on  the  mass.  The  cell  is  then  sealed  and  the  larva 
's  not  fed  further  during  the  developmental  stages. 


102  Beekeeping 

its  outward  appearance.  The  small  head  of  the  larva  grows 
to  adult  size,  the  thoracic  segments  and  the  first  abdominal 
segment  unite  and  undergo  marked  external  changes  to 
form  the  thorax  of  the  adult.  The  abdomen  changes  least 
in  external  form  but  marked  internal  changes  occur.  This 
brief  category  of  the  vital  modifications  can  give  but  a 
suggestion  of  the  changes  which  the  pupa  undergoes.  All 
of  this  occurs  in  an  animal  which  externally  seems  lifeless, 
but  the  internal  changes  require  such  large  expenditures 
of  energy  that  the  animal  loses  weight  by  the  consumption 
of  the  food  which  the  greedy  larva  stores  up  as  fat  in  the  fat 
body. 

The  external  changes  of  the  pupa  are  interesting,  even 
though  of  minor  importance.  The  compound  eyes  first 
change  from  white  to  pink  by  the  deposition  of  a  pigment 
around  the  rhabdomes  of  the  eye  (p.  167)  and  later  this  pink 
pigment  is  gradually  covered  by  a  darker  external  pigment 
so  that  the  eyes  appear  brown  and  then  black.  The  thorax 
shows  coloration  earlier  than  the  abdomen.  Toward  the 
close  of  the  pupal  period,  the  outside  of  the  animal  becomes 
covered  over  with  a  layer  of  hard  chitin  for  the  protection 
of  the  adult  and  to  serve  as  a  skeleton  for  the  insertion  of 
the  muscles.  The  legs  and  wings  originate  as  hollow  bud- 
like outgrowths  on  the  thorax  and  after  the  last  moult  of 
the  larva  these  invaginations  are  suddenly  extended  by 
blood  pressure.  The  wings  are  at  first  small  thin  sacs  which 
grow  and  finally  take  on  the  adult  form,  after  which  the  two 
sides  of  the  sac  fuse  and  the  blood  in  the  sac  returns  to  the 
body  cavity,  leaving  the  wings  as  dry  membranes. 

Length  of  developmental  stages. 

The  length  of  the  various  stages  of  development  varies 
among  the  different  types  in  the  hive.  The  preceding  ac- 
count applies  especially  to  worker  bees,  which  have  been 
most  frequently  investigated,  probably  because  of  the  ease 
of  obtaining  material.  The  stages  are  essentially  similar 
in  queens  and  drones.     While  the  rapidity  of  development 


The  Life  of  the  Individual 


103 


is  slightly  modified  by  changes  in  temperature  of  the  hive, 
it  is,  in  the  main,  quite  uniform  and  it  is  therefore  possible 
to  give  the  time  from  egg-laying  to  emergence  of  the  adult. 
It  must  be  understood  that  these  vary  somewhat  and  it  is 
rather  remarkable  that  the  variation  is  not  more  pronounced. 
On  account  of  the  variation  the  various  tables  given  for  the 
length  of  stages  are  not  uniform.  The  following  table  (II) 
is  a  fair  average : 


Table  II.   Developmental  Stages 


Stage 

Queen 

Worker 

Drone 

Egg 

Larva      .... 
Pupa .     .     .     .     . 

3 

7\ 

3 

6 
12 

3 

14^ 

Total      .... 

16 

21 

24 

The  figures  given  in  this  table  for  the  pupal  stage  include 
all  the  time  that  the  developing  bee  is  sealed  up  in  the  cell. 
During  part  of  this  time,  the  larval  stage  is  continued  but 
no  additional  food  is  taken.  This  is  followed  by  a  semi- 
pupa  stage,  when  the  insect  resembles  a  larva  but  has  under- 
gone a  moult  and  the  hind-  and  mid-intestine  are  connected. 
The  true  pupa  stage  follows  this  and  the  transition  to  the 
adult  is  gradual,  the  separation  between  the  two  stages  being 
marked  by  the  emergence  of  the  insect  from  the  cell.  The 
number  of  moults  in  the  larval  stage  are  sometimes  given 
as  probably  six  (Cheshire).  This  should  be  more  carefull}'^ 
studied. 

The  structure  of  the  adult  bee  will  be  briefly  discussed 
in  conjunction  with  the  functions  of  the  various  organs. 
When  the  young  bee  emerges  from  the  cell  it  is  structurally 
in  the  adult  condition.  It  does  not  grow  in  size  nor  do  any 
marked  changes  in  most  of  the  organs  occur  during  adult 
life.     This  is  true  of   all  insects.     While   certain  internal 


104  Beekeeping 

organs  undergo  change,  these  are  not  of  a  character  to  change 
the  outside  appearance.  The  food  taken  by  the  adult  is 
not  stored  up  within  the  body,  as  in  the  larva,  but  is  taken 
for  immediate  use. 

THE  CYCLE  OF  DUTIES  OF  THE  ADULT  WORKER  BEE 

When  the  worker  emerges  from  the  cell,  it  is  covered  with 
a  soft  skin,  the  last  pupal  moult,  which  is  quickly  removed. 
For  a  day  or  two  the  young  bee  remains  on  the  combs,  fre- 
quently on  the  one  from  which  it  emerged,  and  moves  about 
but  little.  Numbers  of  young  bees  are  often  seen  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  hive  and  especially  in  the  supers.  In  a 
few  days  they  begin  the  inside  work  ^  of  the  hive  which 

1  An  interesting  opportunity  for  speculation  is  offered  in  attempting 
to  determine  the  basis  for  the  division  of  labor  in  worker  bees  according 
to  age.  In  studying  the  structure  of  the  compound  eye,  the  author  (Proc. 
Acad.  Nat.  Science,  Philadelphia,  Vol.  LVII,  pp.  123-157)  was  struck  by 
the  presence  of  enormous  numbers  of  curved  unbranched  hairs  which  cover 
the  eye  of  the  young  adult  bee  so  completely  that  the  facets  are  not  visible. 
These  hairs  are  broken  off  readily  and  in  field  bees  most  of  the  hairs  have 
disappeared.  It  is  probably  impossible  for  the  compound  eyes  to  function 
while  these  hairs  remain.  These  facts  suggested  the  possibility  that  the 
young  bees  remain  in  the  hive  because  they  cannot  see  clearly  enough  to 
fly  to  the  field  and  that  when  the  hairs  are  lost  the  field  work  is  begun. 
That  the  young  bees  are  capable  of  flight  is  clearly  shown  by  their  ability 
to  leave  with  a  swarm.  In  this  case,  sight  is  probably  not  essential.  In 
attempting  to  determine  whether  there  is  any  ground  for  such  a  belief, 
numerous  experiments  were  tried,  by  removing  the  hairs  of  young  bees 
to  see  whether  they  were  then  more  inclined  to  leave  the  hive.  The  hairs 
were  scraped  from  some  young  workers  and  in  other  cases  soft  paraffin  or 
beeswax  and  paraffin  was  applied  to  the  eyes  and  then  removed,  the  hairs 
breaking  off  with  its  removal.  In  every  case  the  handling  made  the  action 
of  the  bees  abnormal,  so  that  no  conclusions  of  any  value  were  obtained. 
That  this  is  probably  the  correct  interpretation  of  the  function  of  these 
hairs  still  lingers  in  the  mind  of  the  author,  in  spite  of  inability  to  obtain 
proof  through  experiments. 

It  may  be  said  in  favor  of  this  theory  that  it  offers  a  structural  basis 
for  an  instinct  which  is  otherwise  unexplained.  The  attribution  of  an 
action  to  "instinct"  is  a  lazy  way  of  explaining  phenomena.  Merely  to 
classify  an  action  and  group  it  with  others,  to  which  a  class  name  is  given, 
does  not  throw  any  light  on  the  behavior.  When  an  action  is  attributed 
to  "instinct"  the  study  of  the  behavior  often  suffers  a  loss  rather  than 
gain,  for  the  giving  of  a  name,  to  some  minds,  constitutes  an  explanation. 
There  is  reason  for  the  belief  that  instincts  all  have  a  physical  basis,  some 


The  Life  of  the  Individual  105 

consists  of  feeding  and  caring  for  the  larvae,  feeding  the 
queen  and  the  drones,  cleaning,  ventilating,  comb  building 
when  necessary,  guarding  the  hive  from  intruders  and  other 
work  inside  the  hive.^ 

When  about  a  week  old,^  on  bright  days,  the  young  bees 
take  "play  flights"  in  front  of  the  hive.  Suddenly,  as  if  in 
response  to  a  signal,  the  young  bees  fly  out,  circle  about  the 
hive,  usually  with  their  heads  toward  the  entrance,  and  as 
a  rule  they  do  not  at  first  venture  more  than  a  few  feet  away. 
In  a  short  time  this  flight  is  over  and  the  young  bees  return 
to  the  hive.  This  flight  of  young  bees  is  often  mistaken  by 
beginners  in  beekeeping  for  the  attack  of  robber  bees  but 
the  action  in  the  two  cases  is  so  different  that  close  obser- 
vation soon  makes  the  dissimilarity  clear.  When  robbers 
are  numerous,  they  dart  toward  the  hive  and  alight  about 
every  crack,  while  young  bees  circle  about,  rarely  alighting 
on  the  hive.  The  flight  of  the  young  bees  is  also  sometimes 
mistaken  for  the  beginning  of  swarming. 

Later  flights  are  more  extended,  and  when  workers  are 
from  14  to  21  days  old  (if  during  a  honey-flow),  they  begin 
their  field  duties  of  gathering  nectar,  pollen,  propolis  and 


peculiar  physical  structure  which  determines  the  action.  This  physical 
basis  may  be  a  specialization  of  some  nervous  element  or  of  some  other 
organ,  but  it  probably  always  exists.  In  the  case  under  discussion,  it  is 
not  enough  to  state  that  the  division  of  labor  inside  and  outside  the  hive 
is  instinctive  and  such  a  statement  is  largely  an  evasion  of  the  problem 
which  the  facts  observed  present  to  us. 

1  In  addition  to  the  inside  duties  named,  the  young  bees  must  sometimes 
serve  as  honey  reservoirs  during  a  heavy  honey-flow.  Especially  in  comb- 
honey  production  where  the  bees  must  be  crowded  to  produce  fancy  honey, 
the  comb  built  is  often  not  sufficient  to  hold  the  nectar  brought  in  and  it  is 
given  to  the  young  bees.  They  may  be  seen  in  the  evening  on  the  combs 
with  abdomens  distended,  but  usually  before  morning  more  comb  is 
completed  and  the  honey  is  deposited  in  cells.  Possibly  this  may  be  part 
of  the  ripening  process,  which  is  poorly  understood  as  yet.  This  function 
of  young  workers  suggests  the  behavior  of  the  honey  ants,  in  which  certain 
individuals  serve  as  honey  pots  for  the  storage  of  honey  until  used.  In 
this  case  the  abdomen  is  abnormally  distended. 

2  In  giving  age  in  days  or  weeks  it  must  be  understood  that  this  is  vari- 
able, depending  on  season  and  honey-flows.  The  determining  factor  in 
the  aging  of  bees  is  work,  not  days  (p.  126). 


106  Beekeeping 

water.  Normally,  they  now  abandon  the  work  inside  the 
hive.  It  sometimes  happens  that  a  colony  will  contain 
relatively  too  many  young  bees  or  too  many  old  ones,  these 
conditions  often  arising  in  practical  manipulations.  If 
there  is  a  lack  of  young  bees,  the  old  ones  act  in  their  stead, 
but  they  secrete  wax  slowly  (p.  108)  and  do  not  produce 
larval  food  adequately.  If  a  colony  is  made  up  artificially 
of  young  bees,  some  of  them  begin  field  work  earlier  than 
normally. 

DIVISION   OF   LABOR 

From  the  preceding  chapter,  it  is  evident  that  there  is  a 
definite  division  among  the  different  members  of  a  colony. 
In  a  colony  composed  of  perhaps  60,000  individuals,  the 
very  existence  of  the  bees  depends  on  an  orderly  performance 
of  the  various  duties,  and  the  development  of  colonial  life, 
therefore,  rests  on  the  evolution  of  some  system  for  the 
division  of  labor.  The  organization  of  the  colony,  already 
described,  shows  one  of  the  most  marked  cases  of  appor- 
tionment of  work,  for  the  egg-laying  is  normally  performed 
by  but  one  individual,  the  queen,  while  all  the  other  females 
(workers)  are  so  constituted  that  egg-laying  is  not  normal 
and  mating  is  impossible.  The  drones  or  males  are  so 
specialized  in  function  that  they  are  probably  useful  to  the 
colony  only  in  the  mating  of  young  queens.  While  the  duty 
of  egg-laying  devolves  on  the  queen,  the  care  of  the  brood  falls 
entirely  to  the  workers.  Since  they  must  do  work  both 
inside  and  outside  the  hive,  there  arises  the  further  neces- 
sity of  a  division  ^  of  these  functions  and  this,  as  has  been 
stated,  is  based  on  the  age  of  the  individuals. 

1  The  division  of  labor  is  as  highly  developed  among  bees  as  in  any 
insect  community.  Among  certain  species  of  ants,  a  greater  diversity  of 
structure  accompanies  the  performance  of  certain  duties.  For  example, 
there  may  be  soldiers  which  serve  only  as  protectors  of  the  community 
and  there  may  be  two  types  of  workers,  differing  structurally  and  in  their 
duties.  While  structural  differences  do  not  occur  in  so  marked  a  way, 
the  members  of  the  bee  colony  are  fully  as  greatly  specialized  in  their  labor 
but  the  performance  of  specific  duties  is  determined  in  some  manner  other 
than  by  structure. 


The  Life  of  the  Individual  107 

Since  it  may  not  at  first  glance  be  clear  how  the  age  at 
which  bees  perform  certain  functions  is  determined,  it  may- 
be well  to  explain  the  simple  method  by  which  this  is  accom- 
plished. If  the  queen  is  removed  from  a  colony  of  black 
(German)  bees  and  a  yellow  (Italian)  queen  is  at  once  in- 
troduced, for  a  period  of  twenty-one  days  after  the  removal 
of  the  old  queen  the  young  worker  bees  which  emerge  from 
the  cells  are  black,  since  they  are  the  progeny  of  the  old 
queen.  At  the  end  of  that  time,  however,  the  worker  brood 
from  the  black  queen  has  all  emerged  and  yellow  bees  begin 
to  appear.  The  time  at  which  the  yellow  bees  first  perform 
certain  functions  may  now  be  determined.  This  experi- 
ment may  be  variously  modified,  as  by  the  removal  of  all 
the  brood  of  the  black  queen  at  once  or  by  the  placing  of 
a  frame  of  brood  from  an  Italian  colony  in  a  colony  of  black 
bees.  The  introduction  of  Italian  bees  into  Germany  and 
later  into  America  has  been  an  important  factor  in  enabling 
investigators  to  learn  many  of  the  phenomena  of  the  hive, 
for  the  use  of  bees  of  two  colors  ^  is  often  of  the  highest 
importance. 

The  labor  within  the  hive. 

When  the  workers  first  emerge  from  the  cells  they  take 
no  part  in  the  work  of  the  hive  for  a  day  or  two,  nor  do  they 
leave  the  hive.  The  first  flight  in  front  of  the  hive  is  usually 
when  they  are  about  a  week  old,  if  the  weather  is  favorable, 
and  these  flights  are  continued  on  warm  bright  days  until 
they  are  nearly  three  weeks  old.  Although  they  do  not  go 
far  at  first  they  may  remain  on  the  wing  for  a  considerable 
period.  That  these  early  flights  are  necessary  in  enabling 
the  young  bees  to  void  their  feces  is  indicated  by  the  fact 
that  if  confined  they  become  restless.^  The  abdomens  of 
young  bees  are  frequently  distended  with  feces. 

*  Another  method  of  marking  bees  for  observation  is  mentioned  by  Cas- 
teel,  Cir.  No.  161,  Bureau  of  Entomology,  p.  5.  The  method  employed 
was  to  paint  bees  with  different  colors  and  also  to  number  them. 

^  This  was  observed  when  colonies  containing  young  bees  were  placed 


108 


Beekeeping 


Donhoff  1  states  that  he  offered  a  stick  dipped  in  honey 
to  young  bees  daily.  Until  they  were  fifteen  days  old  they 
did  not  lick  the  honey  eagerly.  The  younger  bees  never 
attempted  to  lick  it,  but  as  they  grew  older  they  paid  more 
attention  to  it.  He  concludes  that  the  *' impulse  for  gather- 
ing honey"  is  not  developed  in  young 
bees.  Not  until  his  experimental  bees 
were  seventeen  days  old  did  he  find  any  on 
his  outdoor  feeders  and  not  until  they  were 
nineteen  days  old  did  any  fly  to  the  field. 

Comb  building. 

If  there  is  need 
for  more  combs,  the 
workers  form  cur- 
tains by  hanging  on 
one  another  from 
the  top  of  the  hive 
or  cavity.  The 
temperature  is  raised 
and  in  a  few  hours 
wax-scales  may  be 
seen  on  the  ventral 
sides  of  the  abdo- 
mens of  the  hang- 
ing bees.  Finally, 
some  of  these  scales 
are  removed  and  manipulated  and  the  bees  begin  building 
new  comb.  The  small  pieces  of  wax  are  put  approximately 
in  the  right  place  and  are  then  sculptured  and  molded  into 


Fig.  53.  — Ventral  plates 
of  the  abdomen  of  a 
worker  bee. 


FiG,  54. —  Inner  sur- 
face of  the  left 
hind  leg  of  a 
worker  bee,  show- 
ing a  wax-scale. 


in  a  cellar  for  winter,  in  connection  with  work  of  Demuth  and  the  author 
on  winter  activities.  The  entire  colony  became  active  and  a  high  tempera- 
ture was  maintained.  The  condition  was  removed  by  taking  the  colonies 
from  the  cellar  for  a  flight.  Bees  that  emerged  from  brood  combs  were 
also  kept  in  a  warm  room,  away  from  older  workers.  These  had  distended 
abdomens  and  if  one  escaped  from  the  hive  it  usually  flew  at  once  to  the 
window,  leaving  a  spot  of  feces  on  the  pane. 

1  Donhoff,  1855.     Eichstadt  Bienenzeitung,  p.  163. 


The  Life  of  the  Individual 


109 


Fig.  55.  —  Ventral  view  of    worker   re- 
moving wax-scale.     Enlarged. 


their  proper  position  and 

shape.     In   spite   of    the 

number  of  bees  at  work 

in   building,   the   wax   is 

quickly  smoothed  into  its 

final    form,    becoming   a 

part  of  the  comb. 

Dreyling  ^    has    shown 

that     in     just     emerged 

worker  bees  the   cells  of 

the  wax   glands   are  not 

fully  developed  and  that 

as  the  worker  grows  older 

the  cells  ele^^gate.    As  the 

bee  ages,  *l©wever,  these 

cells  decre^ipe  and  degen- 
erate,    ttese    results    fully    support    the    observations    of 

beekeepers  that  bees  secrete  wax  best   before  they  become 

field  bees.     If,  however,  a  colony  of  old  bees  is  required  to 

build  comb,  the  bees  can 
still  secrete  some  wax,  but 
for  some  reason  not  under- 
stood they*  usually  build 
irregularly. 

Beeswax  is  secreted  in 
pockets  on  the  ventral  side 
of  the  abdomen  on  the  wax 
plates  (Fig.  53)  situated 
on  the  sternal  plates  of  the 
last  four  visible  segments 
of  the  abdomen.  Each 
segment  bears  two  of  these 
plates,  making  eight  in  all. 


Fig.  56.  —  Side  view  of  worker  removing 
wax-scale.     Enlarged. 


1  Dreyling,  L.,  1903.  Ueber  die  wachsbereitenden  Organe  der  Honig- 
biene.     Zool.  Anz.,  XXVI. 

,   1905.     Die  wachsbereitenden  Organe  bei  den  gesellig  lebenden 

Bienen.     Zool.  Jahrbiicher,  Abth.  Anat.  u.  Ont.  d.  Theire,  XXII. 


no 


Beekeeping 


As   the   secreted  wax    comes   in    contact  with   the   air,  it 
hardens,  forming  the  scales  of  wax. 

The  manipulation  by 
the  bees  of  the  wax-scales 
has  been  carefully  de- 
scribed by  Casteel.i  The 
scales  are  removed  from 
the  pockets  by  spines  of 
the  pollen  comb  (Fig.  54) 
on  the  first  tarsal  segment 
(plant a)  of  the  third  pair 
of  legs.  The  surface  of 
the  planta  is  passed  over 
the  ventral  side  of  the  ab- 
domen (Figs.  55  and  56) 
and  after  the  scale  is  loos- 
ened the  third  leg  is  bent 
forward  (Figs.  57  and  58), 
thus  passing  the  scale  to  the  front  pair  of  legs.  It  is  then 
masticated  by  the  mandibles,  after  which  it  is  ready  to  put  in 
place  in  the  new  comb. 
The  various  movements 
in  manipulatidh  are  so 
well  shown  in  Casteel's 
figures  that  further  de- 
scription is  unnecessary. 
It  is  clearly  shown  that 
the  so-called  wax-shears, 
which  are  described  by 
so  many  authors  as  be- 
ing used  to  remove  wax- 
scales,  have  in  fact  nothing  to  do  with  the  wax  manipu- 
lation. It  is  shown  later  that  these  are  concerned  in  pollen 
gathering. 


Fig.  57.  —  Ventral  view  of  worker  pass- 
ing wax-scale  forward.     Enlarged. 


Fig. 


58.  —  Side   view   of   worker   passing 
wax-scale  forward.     Enlarged. 


1  Casteel,  D.   B.,    1912.     The  manipulation  of  the  wax  scales  of  the 
honey  bee.     Cir.  No.  161,  Bureau  of  Entomology,  13  pp. 


The  Life  of  the  Individual 


111 


Feeding  of  larvce. 

The  feeding  of  the  larvae  is  one  of  the  most  ardently  dis- 
puted questions  in  bee  activity.  The  chief  controversy 
arises  over  the  source  of  the  food,  some  authors  claiming 
that  it  is  a  secretion  of  glands,  while  others  maintain  that  it 
is  regurgitated  from  the  ventriculus.  The  heat  of  contro- 
versy seems  to  have  hidden  from  view  the  fact  that  this 
can  be  determined  only  by  investigation.  An  explanation 
of  the  two  current  views  involves  some  study  of  the 
glands  emptying  into  the  alimentary  canal  and  of  the 
ventriculus. 

There  are  in  the  head 
of  the  worker  bee,  two 
systems  of  glands  (Fig. 
59),  the  lateral  pharjrn- 
geal  (supracerebral  of 
Bordas,  System  No.  1 
of  Cheshire)  (IGl)  and 
the  salivary  glands  of 
the  head  (postcerebral 
of  Bordas,  System  No. 
2  of  Cheshire)  {2GI),  and 
in  the  thorax  are  found 
the  salivary  glands  of 
the  thorax  (thoracic  sal- 
ivary of  Bordas,  System  No.  3  of  Cheshire)  (Fig.  60, 
SGI).  The  ducts  of  the  two  systems  of  salivary  glands 
unite  into  one  median  tube  which  enters  the  base  of 
the  labium  and  opens  upon  the  upper  surface  of  the 
ligula.  These  glands  are  homologous  with  the  salivary 
glands  of  other  insects  and  presumably  their  secretions 
assist  in  digestion  although  their  exact  function  is  un- 
known. They  are  found  in  queens,  drones  and  workers. 
The  lateral  pharyngeal  glands  (IGl)  are  absent  in  the  drone 
and  never  more  than  rudimentary  in  the  queen,  and  this 
leads  to  the  conclusion  that  they  function  in  some  way  which 
is  especially  useful  to  the  worker.     They  are  claimed  by 


Fig.  59.  —  Median  longitudinal  section  of 
head  of  worker,  showing  the  glands 
(IGl  and  2GI). 


112 


Beekeeping 


Schiemenz/  and  after 
him  by  Cheshire,^  to 
be  the  source  of  food 
given  by  the  work- 
ers to  the  larvae  of 
queens,  drones  and 
workers.  It  is 
claimed  that  the  de- 
velopment of  these 
glands  is  in  propor- 
tion to  the  special- 
ization of  the  species 
in  the  feeding  of  the 
larvae ;  in  bumble- 
bees (Bombus)  they 
are  as  well  developed 
as  in  the  honeybee. 
They  are  decreas- 
ingly  smaller  in  Psi- 
thyrus,  Andrena  and 
Anthophora.  Since 
the  feeding  of  some 
of  these  species  is 
entirely  unhke  that 
of  the  honeybee,  this 
evolution  perhaps 
proves  too  much  for 
this  theory. 

Schonfeld,^  on  the 
contrary,  holds  that 
the  larval  food  arises  in  the  ventriculus  and  not  in  these 


Fig.  60.  —  Alimentary  canal  of  worker,  show- 
ing glands,  pharynx  (Phy),  oesophagus  ((E), 
honey-stomach  (HS) ,  pro  ventriculus  (Pvent) , 
ventriculus  (Vent),  intestine  (SInt),  rectal 
ampulla  (Reel)  and  Malpighian  tubules 
(Mai). 


1  Schiemenz,  Paulus,  1883.  Ueber  des  Herkommen  des  Futtersaftes 
und  die  Speicheldriisen  der  Bienen,  nebst  einem  Anhange  iiber  das  Reichor- 
gan.     Zeit.  f.  wiss.  Zool.,  XXXVIII,  pp.  71-135. 

2  Cheshire,  1886.  Bees  and  beekeeping.  2  vols.,  London :  L.  Upcott 
Gill. 

3  Schonfeld,  1886.  Die  physiologische  Bedeutung  des  Magenmundes 
der  Honigbiene.     Arch.  f.  Anat.  und  Physiol.     Abth.,  pp.  451-458. 


The  Life  of  the  Individual 


113 


glands.  Cook  ^  and  Cowan  ^  both  adhere  to  this  view.  The 
ahmentary  canal  of  the  worker  (Fig.  60),  posterior  to  the 
pharynx,  narrows  to  a  slender  oBsophagus  {(E)  extending 
through  the  thorax.  In  the  abdomen,  this  is  enlarged  into 
a  thin-walled  sac  known  in  the  honeybee  as  the  honey- 
stomach  {HS,  crop  of  other  insects),  since  it  is  used  to 
carry  nectar  to  the  hive.  At  the 
posterior  end  this  merges  with  the 
proventriculus,  with  heavy  muscular 
walls,  which  contains  a  valvular  ap- 
paratus (Fig.  61).  Behind  this  is 
the  stomach  or  ventriculus  {Vent). 
Schonfeld  claims  that  the  brood 
food,  especially  that  of  the  queen 
(royal  jelly),  is  regurgitated  from 
the  ventriculus.  The  experiments 
of  Schonfeld  seem  to  show  that 
the  valve  in  the  proventriculus  opens 
and  moves  anteriorly  even  to  the 
oesophagus  when  this  is  done,  but 
Snodgrass  ^  claims  that  this  cannot 
be  done  without  tearing  the  mus- 
cles of  the  proventriculus.  Cowan 
and  other  authors  figure' this  action 
in  a  diagram,  but  with  no  evidence 
from  observation.  Schonfeld  and 
Cook    fed    charcoal  in  honey  and 

found  this  in  the  brood  food  which  would,  in  their  esti- 
mation, be  impossible  if  the  food  is  of  glandular  origin,  but 
they  overlooked  the  fact  that  the  charcoal  might  get  into 
the  brood  food  from  the  mouth  of  the  worker.  The  char- 
coal could  not  pass  through  the  walls  of  the  ventriculus  in 


Ef>th      fP 

Fig.  61.  —  Longitudinal  me- 
dian section  of  base  of 
oesophagus. 


^  Cook,  A.  J.,  1904.     The  beekeeper's  guide  or  manual  of  the  apiarj', 
18th  ed.,  Chicago. 

2  Cowan,  T.  W.,  1904.     The  honey  bee,  2d.  ed.,  London. 

'  Snodgrass,    R.    L.,    1910.     The   anatomy  of   the   honey  bee.      Tech. 
Series,  18,  Bureau  of  Entomology,  pp.  162. 
I 


114  Beekeeping 

digestion.  According  to  Petersen,  the  peritrophic  membrane 
in  the  ventriculus  is  so  formed  as  to  make  regurgitation 
from  the  ventriculus  impossible. 

While  the  work  of  Schiemenz  and  Schonfeld  must  be 
given  due  consideration,  we  must  wait  until  some  competent 
investigator  takes  up  this  problem.  The  various  arguments 
are  thus  summarized  by  Snodgrass  (p.  100) : 

"1.  The  brood  food  itself  is  a  milky-white,  finely  granu- 
lar, and  gummy  paste  having  a  strong  acid  reaction  said  to 
be  due  to  the  presence  of  tartaric  acid. 

*'2.  The  pharyngeal  glands  of  the  head  are  developed  in 
proportion  to  the  social  specialization  of  the  various  species 
of  bees;  they  are  always  largest  in  those  individuals  that 
feed  the  brood,  and  they  reach  their  highest  development 
in  the  workers  of  the  honey  bee.  From  this  it  would  seem 
that  they  are  accessory  to  some  special  function  of  the 
worker. 

''3.  The  contents  of  the  stomach  in  the  workers  consist 
of  a  dark  brown,  sHmy,  or  mucilaginous  substance  in  no 
way  resembling  the  brood  food,  even  when  acidulated  with 
tartaric  acid.  Pollen  is  present  in  varying  quantity,  mostly 
in  the  posterior  end  of  the  stomach,  and  shows  little  or 
no  evidence  of  digestion.  Since  the  brown  food  is  highly 
nutritious,  it  must  contain  an  abundance  of  nitrogenous 
food  material,  which  is  derived  only  from  pollen  in  the  bee's 
diet.  Therefore  it  is  not  clear  how  the  stomach  contents 
can  alone  form  brood  food. 

*'4.  The  constituents  of  the  food  given  to  the  different 
larvae,  at  different  stages  in  their  growth,  and  to  the  adult 
queens  and  drones  show  a  constant  variation  apparently 
regulated  by  the  workers  producing  it.  A  variation  of  this 
sort  cannot  be  explained  if  it  is  assumed  that  the  brood  food 
is  produced  by  the  glands  alone. 

"5.  Powdered  charcoal  fed  to  a  hive  of  bees  appears 
after  a  short  time  in  the  brood  food  in  the  cells,  and  this 
has  been  urged  as  proof  that  the  latter  is  regurgitated  'chyle.' 
But  it  is  certainly  entirely  possible  that  the  charcoal  found 


The  Life  of  the  Individual 


115 


in  the  food  might  have  come  only  from  the  honey  stomach 
or  even  from  the  oesophagus  or  mouth. 

"6.  We  have  Schonf eld's  word  for  the  statement  that  a 
regurgitation  of  the  stomach  contents  may  be  artificially 
induced  by  irritation  of  the  honey  stomach  and  ventriculus 
in  a  freshly  dissected  bee,  but  all  explanations  offered  to 
show  how  this  is  mechanically  possible  in  spite  of  the  pro- 
ventricular  valve  are  unsatisfactory  when  the  actual  ana- 
tomical structure  is  taken  into  consideration." 

Table  III.    Composition  of  Larval  Foods.  —  v.  Planta 


Queen 

Drones 

Workers 

Under  4 
Days 

Over  4 
Days 

Under  4 
Days 

Over  4 
Days 

Proteid      .     .     . 
Fat       .... 
Sugar    .... 

45.15 
13.55 
20.39 

55.91 

11.90 

9.57 

31.67 

4.74 

38.49 

53.38 

8.38 
18.09 

27.87 

3.69 

44.93 

Composition  of  larval  food. 

The  chemical  composition  of  the  larval  food  has  been  in- 
vestigated by  von  Planta.^  This  larval  food  is  obviously 
not  merely  a  mixture  of  honey  and  pollen  nor  is  the  food  given 
the  various  kinds  of  bees  at  different  ages  uniformly  the 
same.  The  following  is  a  brief  summary  of  von  Planta's 
conclusions :  The  three  kinds  of  bees  require  different 
food  and,  in  the  drone  and  worker  larvae,  the  food  changes 
after  the  third  day,  being  mixed  with  half-digested  pollen 
grains  and  honey  in  the  case  of  the  drone  and  honey  only  in 
the  case  of  the  workers. ^  On  the  other  hand  the  queen  larva 
receives  the  rich  food  suppUed  the  young  larvae  of  other 

^  von  Planta,  Adolf,  1888.  Ueber  den  Futtersaft  der  Bienen.  Zeit.  f. 
Phys.  Chemie  von  Hoppe-Seyler,  XII,  pp.  327-354.  1889;  idem,  XIII, 
pp.  552-561. 

'  Pollen  grains  are  found  plentifully  in  the  mid-intestine  of  the  older 
worker  larvae,  so  that  in  this  respect  at  least  the  results  of  v.  Planta's  work 
must  be  questioned. 


116  Beekeeping 

castes  throughout  her  entire  larval  period  (called  royal 
jelly)  which  is  free  from  undigested  pollen  and  completely 
predigested.  The  table  (p.  115)  gives  the  percentages  of 
the  various  food  constituents  as  determined  by  v.  Planta. 

Snodgrass  (p.  93)  reports  finding  undigested  pollen  grains 
in  royal  jelly,  contrary  to  the  statements  of  v.  Planta.  The 
larval  food  differs  essentially  in  appearance  from  the  con- 
tents of  the  ventriculus  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  of 
it  being  a  regurgitated  product  to  which  is  added  merely 
an  acid  secretion  of  the  glands.  The  beekeeping  industry 
is  under  lasting  obligation  to  v.  Planta  for  his  research  in 
this  and  other  subjects,  but  it  is  no  disrespect  to  his  work 
to  express  the  belief  that  this  subject  should  be  thoroughly 
investigated  by  modern  methods.  The  methods  of  analysis 
have  been  greatly  improved  since  his  work  was  done ;  they 
have,  in  fact,  been  so  completely  changed  that  v.  Planta's 
results  cannot  be  considered  as  conclusive  in  any  respect. 

Feeding  of  queens  and  drones. 

In  addition  to  the  feeding  of  the  various  types  and  ages 
of  larvae,  the  workers  feed  the  queen  and  seemingly  the 
drones  also  during  their  presence  in  the  colony.  The  exces- 
sive egg-laying  of  the  queen  (p.  57)  obviously  calls  for 
nourishment  in  large  quantities  and  during  the  season  of 
heavy  laying  the  queen  usually  stops  for  a  few  minutes 
about  every  half-hour  and  during  this  resting  period  she  is 
almost  constantly  fed.  While  the  feeding  of  the  drones  is 
less  easily  observed,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  feed- 
ing is  discontinued  at  the  close  of  the  honey-flow,  at  which 
time  the  drones  are  first  driven  to  the  lower  parts  of  the  hive 
and  finally  are  easily  carried  out,  because  of  their  weakened 
condition.  Both  queens  and  drones  are  capable  of  taking 
honey  from  cells,  but  apparently  do  not  take  pollen  themselves. 

Other  inside  work. 

Little  remains  to  be  said  in  detail  of  the  inside  work  of 
the  hive  which  is  performed  by  the  workers.     They  clean 


The  Life  of  the  Individual  117 

the  hive,  and  in  case  they  are  unable  to  remove  the  d6bris, 
they  may  cover  it  with  propoUs.  Lizards  (Fig.  62),  small 
snakes  and  other  intruders  to  the  hive,  which  are  too  large 
for  the  workers  to  remove,  are  sometimes  found  as  "mum- 
mies" on  the  hive  bottom,  sealed  in  propolis.  The  ventila- 
tion of  the  hive  is  accomplished  by  fanning  of  the  wings. 
The  colony  exhibits  an  astonishing  degree  of  efficiency  in 
its  ability  to  protect  itself  and  the  brood  from  excessively 
high  inside  ternperatures  by  rapid  ventilation  through  a  rel- 
atively small  opening  at  the  entrance. 


Fig.  62.  —  Lizard  incased  in  propolis. 

The  guarding  of  the  colony  from  intruders  is  interesting  and 
of  great  importance  to  the  colony.  This  is  done  by  bees 
which  stand  about  the  entrance  and  on  the  lower  edges  of 
the  combs  of  the  brood  chamber.  These  bees  usually  do 
not  remain  long  at  this  work  for  the  guards  are  constantly 
changing.  The  hand  may  be  placed  right  among  them  if 
the  movement  is  slow,  while  a  swift  movement  will  cause 
them  to  dart  out  and  will  bring  others  to  the  entrance. 
The  honeybee  is  capable  of  preventing  the  entrance  of  in- 
sects larger  and  more  powerful  than  itself,  such  as  wasps 
and  bumblebees.  During  the  summer  of  1909,  small  yellow- 
jackets  were  especially  abundant  in  the  apiary  of  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  then  at  College  Park,  Maryland, 
and  many  dead  ones  were  found  daily  in  front  of  the 
hives.  Numerous  large  wasps  with  hard  chitinous  covering 
are  also  killed  by  the  bees.  The  bee-moth  in  some  way 
often  succeeds  in  entering  the  hive  but  usually  the  eggs  or 
larvse  are  removed  before  any  harm  is  done.  Their  success 
probably  depends  upon  their  habit  of  flying  by  night. 


118  Beekeeping 

Of  all  these  labors  which  the  workers  perform  within  the 
hive,  none  of  them  monopolizes  the  time  of  certain  individuals 
as  completely  as  does  comb  building,  in  which  the  bees  hang 
in  curtains  from  the  comb  support.  Casteel  has  shown  that 
even  in  this  the  bees  change  their  duties  frequently.  Bees 
are  constantly  changing  from  guards  to  feeders  of  the  brood 
or  from  ventilators  to  cleaners,  and  yet  the  work  of  the  hive 
is  done  well  and,  one  is  almost  tempted  to  say,  systematically. 

The  labor  outside  the  hive. 

While  the  division  of  the  inside  duties  may  be  explained 
to  a  certain  degree,  the  division  of  the  outside  work  presents 
problems  of  far  greater  perplexity,  chiefly  because  of 
difficulty  of  observation.  That  there  is  an  order  to  this 
work  is  an  inevitable  conclusion,  but  how  this  order  is  brought 
about  among  the  thousands  of  field  workers  is  not  easily 
determined.  Bees  go  to  the  field  to  obtain  nectar,  pollen, 
water  and  propolis.  If  there  were  no  "  system,"  we  should  ex- 
pect to  find  colonies  lacking  one  or  more  of  these  substances 
in  sufficient  quantity  or,  perchance,  a  colony  with  the 
brood  nest  choked  with  pollen  or  a  hive  over-propolized. 
There  are,  in  fact,  variations  in  all  these  things,  but  there 
are  no  cases  which  can  be  considered  abnormal.  Further- 
more, on  the  grounds  of  an  apiary  of  200  colonies  may  be 
found  heads  of  white  clover  or  other  nectar-secreting  flowers 
right  at  hand.  The  bees  in  any  case  are  not  falling  over 
each  other  to  reach  a  certain  flower  and  leaving  other  flowers 
untouched,  as  would  be  the  case  sometimes  if  bees  were 
guided  to  nectar  merely  by  the  chance  sight  of  a  flower. 
Or,  assuming  only  that  there  is  a  system  whereby  the  indi- 
vidual colony  divides  up  the  surrounding  territory,  there 
would  be  cases  of  conflict  between  bees  from  the  various 
colonies  in  their  attempts  to  reach  the  same  flowers.  If 
then  we  dare  to  assume  a  pre-arranged  plan,  it  must  include 
the  entire  apiary  and  even  more,  all  the  apiaries  within  the 
range  of  flight.  While  bees  get  nectar  from  the  flowers 
right  beside  the   hive,  they   are  no   more   numerous   on 


The  Life  of  the  Individual  119 

such  flowers  than  on  other  flowers  a  quarter  or  half  mile 
away. 

On  one  occasion,  the  author  watched  a  head  of  white 
clover  within  two  feet  of  a  hive  entrance.  This  flower  was 
without  a  visitor  for  so  long  that  it  was  almost  concluded 
that  there  must  be  no  nectar  in  it.  All  this  time  hundreds 
of  bees  were  flying  to  and  from  the  hive,  many  of  them  pass- 
ing within  six  inches  of  the  flower.  Finally,  a  bee  flew  from 
the  entrance  directly  to  this  flower  and  worked  for  a  con- 
siderable time,  sucking  nectar,  and,  evidently  getting  a 
sufficient  quantity  after  a  time,  it  returned  to  the  hive.  That 
there  was  considerable  nectar  present  in  this  flower  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  other  visits  were  made  to  this  flower  within 
the  next  half-hour  from  the  same  hive.  At  no  time,  in  an 
hour's  observation,  were  two  bees  on  the  head  at  once. 

Furthermore,  when  a  bee  flies  from  the  hive,  the  flight 
is  usually  not  uncertain  but  is  directed  toward  a  source  of 
supply.  It  is  usually  stated  that  bees  carry  either  nectar 
or  pollen  back  to  the  hive  but  not  both,  but  this  is  not  cor- 
rect. It  may  perhaps  be  stated  that  they  usually  gather 
from  one  species  only  on  any  given  trip.^     Some  additional 

*  This  feature  is  of  the  highest  importance  in  a  consideration  of  the 
value  of  the  bee  in  the  cross-pollination  of  plants.  Since  the  trips  are 
usually  confined  to  one  species,  the  beneficial  results  are  increased  many 
fold,  for  if  they  wandered  promiscuously  from  one  to  the  other  species 
they  would  thereby  scatter  pollen  where  it  would  be  ineffectual.  That 
they  fail  to  discriminate  among  various  varieties  may  be  considered  as 
not  a  misfortune  since  certain  varieties  are  pollinated  better  with  pollen 
from  another  variety. 

Bulman  (1902,  The  constancy  of  the  bee,  Zoologist,  Ser.  4,  VI,  pp. 
220-222)  quotes  from  various  authors  to  the  effect  that  bees  keep  to  one 
species  on  a  single  trip  from  the  hive,  and  even  "as  long  as  they  can,  before 
going  to  another  species"  (Darwin,  Fertilization  of  Plants,  p.  415).  This 
constancy  is  considered  most  highly  developed  in  the  honeybee  but  is 
claimed  for  certain  Diptera  (Bennett,  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  Zool,  XVII,  p.  184). 
Ord  (1897,  The  constancy  of  the  bee,  Trans,  nat.  hist.  soc.  Glasgow,  n.  s., 
V,  Pt.  1,  pp.  85-88)  undertook  to  examine  this  as  "one  of  the  great  pillars  of 
the  Law  of  Natural  Selection"  and  finds  that  "only  about  30%  have 
proved  inconstant  while  they  were  under  my  eye.  ...  In  most  cases 
when  I  was  able  to  follow  the  bee  for  any  considerable  time,  I  found  that, 
sooner  or  later,  a  change  was  made."  He  then  records  numerous  observa- 
tions which  show  inconstancy  in  a  marked  degree  as  from  Leguminosae  to 


120  Beekeeping 

facts  concerning  the  gathering  of  bees  are  of  interest.  If 
honey  is  exposed  where  it  is  accessible  to  bees,  they  go  to  it 
by  the  hundreds,  if  there  is  no  nectar  in  the  field,  and  under 
these  circumstances  they  are  on  the  lookout  for  openings 
in  other  hives  so  that  they  can  rob.  On  the  other  hand, 
during  a  nectar-flow  honey  may  sometimes  be  exposed  in 
the  apiary  without  a  bee  coming  near  it.^  This  leads  some- 
times to  the  conclusion  that  bees  prefer  nectar  to  honey. 
Even  if  honey  is  placed  in  a  feeder  inside  the  hive,  it  is  often 
not  touched  during  a  heavy  nectar-flow. 

Division  of  labor  in  gathering. 

There  has  been  little  done  on  the  division  of  labor  outside 
the  hive  but  Bonnier  ^  has  written  a  paper  of  great  interest 
on  this  subject.  Whether  his  conclusions  may  be  accepted 
must  depend  upon  future  experiments,  but  a  resume  of  his 
paper  is  of  interest.  The  field  bees  are  divided  by  him  into 
two  classes,  searchers  and  collectors.  Searchers  fly  to  vari- 
ous plants,  gathering  some  nectar  and  some  pollen  and  light- 
ing on  many  neighboring  objects,  and  behave  much  as  do 
wasps,  which  are  generally  searchers.     A  bee  is  transformed 

Primulacese  or  Compositae  or  from  yellow  flowers  to  pink,  white  or  purple. 
He  concludes  that  the  majority  of  bees  are  constant,  but  if  watched  long 
enough  they  are  by  no  means  so,  that  "few  bees  appear  to  be  able  to  with- 
stand the  temptation  of  a  Garden,"  where  a  variety  of  plants  present  them- 
selves, and  that  "the  Hive-bee  appeared  to  be  fully  as  inconstant  as  the  wild 
Humble-bees."  Bulman  gives  records  of  48  observations  on  honeybees 
in  a  garden  which  were  inconstant.  That  bees  go  from  white  clover 
{Trifolium  repens)  to  alsike  clover  (T.  hyhridum)  or  to  two  species  of  another 
genus  which  are  perhaps  less  readily  distinguishable  to  an  untrained  human 
eye  should  not  excite  wonder.  All  that  can  be  claimed  from  the  known 
facts  concerning  the  so-called  constancy  of  the  honeybee  is  that  if  enough 
flowers  of  one  kind  are  easily  accessiJDle,  they  seem  to  prefer  those  of  one 
kind.  They  usually  do  not  fly  from  dandelion  to  apple  blossom,  although 
Ord  records  one  such  case.  No  more  than  this  is  needed  to  make  bees  more 
beneficial  to  the  fruit-grower  than  they  would  be  if  their  visits  were  entirely 
promiscuous. 

1  Zander,  Enoch,  1913.  Das  Geruchsvermogen  der  Bienen.  Biol. 
Centralbl.,  XXXIII,  pp.  711-716. 

2  Bonnier,  Gaston,  1906.  Sur  la  division  du  travail  chez  les  abeilles. 
Comptes  rendus  hebdomadaires  des  seances  de  I'academie  des  sciences, 
CXLIII,  pp.  941-946. 


The  Life  of  the  Individual  121 

from  a  searcher  to  a  collector  when  a  suitable  source  of 
nectar  or  pollen  is  discovered,  and  other  bees  come  to  the 
same  source.  During  a  good  honey-flow,  searchers  are 
sent  out  only  in  the  early  morning  and  soon  all  become  col- 
lectors (which  may  account  for  the  lack  of  robbing  and 
the  indifference  to  honey  about  the  apiary  at  such  times) 
but  during  a  dearth  of  nectar,  searchers  are  out  all  day. 
Bonnier  further  claims  that  bees  ''commanded"  to  collect 
either  nectar,  water,  pollen  or  propolis  do  not  leave  their 
work  and  will  not  stop  even  to  collect  honey  placed  in  front 
of  them.  This  claim  is  supported  by  experiments.  The 
following  translation  of  a  portion  of  the  paper  cannot  well 
be  summarized :  — 

"...  I  shall  cite  the  following  which  shows  .  .  .  how 
the  division  of  labor  among  bees  of  the  same  hive  is  organized 
and  so  a  sort  of  tacit  understanding,  which  is  manifested 
among  bees  of  different  hives.  I  detached  six  branches  of 
flowers  of  Lycium,  each  having  about  the  same  number  of 
open  flowers.  I  put  each  branch  in  a  bottle  filled  with  water. 
On  placing  these  bottles  in  the  same  place  from  which  I 
had  taken  the  branches,  I  saw  that  the  workers  continued 
to  visit  the  flowers  of  the  branches  put  in  water  just  the 
same  as  those  on  branches  not  detached  from  the  plant. 
This  verified,  I  carried  the  six  bottles  containing  the  branches 
to  the  fruit  garden,  September  first,  away  from  all  nectar- 
bearing  plants,  consequently  to  a  new  place  for  the  bees. 
I  remained  constantly  watching  the  six  bottles  containing 
Lycium  branches.  No  bees  came  to  visit  the  flowers  on 
these  branches.  The  next  day  I  saw  the  first  bee  as  a 
searcher,  which  discovered  them.  She  inspected  all  the 
branches  and  took  some  nectar  and  pollen;  I  marked  her 
on  the  back  with  talc  colored  red.  In  about  three  minutes 
she  returned  to  the  hive. 

"Five  minutes  afterward  the  same  first  bee  (which  I 
call  'A'),  as  shown  by  the  red  mark,  came  back  with  another 
and  the  two  bees  as  collectors  undertook  a  methodic  visit 
to  the  branches,  one  to  collect  nectar  and  the  other  pollen. 
I  call  the  second  bee  '  B '  and  marked  her  white. 


122  Beekeeping 

"Ten  minutes  after,  there  were  three  visiting  bees.  A  new 
one  'C/  which  I  marked  green,  came  to  join  the  other  two 
from  the  same  hive,  as  I  verified. 

"Later  the  same  three  workers,  A,  B,  C,  A  and  C  always 
collecting  nectar,  and  B  only  pollen,  came  back  regularly  to 
the  flowering  branches  and  visited  them  in  the  same  order. 
All  the  next  day  these  same  three  bees.  A,  B,  and  C,  visited 
the  six  branches. 

"I  then  asked  myself  why  other  bees  of  the  same  hive 
or  of  other  hives  did  not  come  to  collect  from  these  branches, 
as  well  as  the  three  bees.  Remaining  under  the  branches, 
I  observed  attentively  what  took  place  on  the  second  day. 
Early  in  the  morning  and  several  times  in  the  forenoon,  once 
in  the  afternoon,  other  searchers  came  to  the  branches  of 
the  flowers  and  each  of  these  searching  bees  did  the  same 
thing  as  A.  She  observed  the  collectors  with  great  care, 
their  number,  their  manner  of  work,  and,  after  two  to  four 
minutes  of  inspection,  she  flew  away  and  did  not  come  back. 
It  seems  that  these  bees,  finding  the  place  occupied,  and 
the  number  of  collectors  sufficient  for  the  small  amount  to 
be  collected  went  elsewhere  to  search. 

"The  fact  is  that  the  day  after,  I  saw  more  and  the  same 
bees.  A,  B,  and  C,  continued  to  visit  the  six  branches  in 
the  same  manner,  A  and  C  always  for  nectar,  and  B  for 
pollen. 

"Then  I  replaced  the  six  flowering  branches  of  Lycium 
with  twelve  branches  which  appeared  to  me  about  the  same ; 
I  saw  two  new  recruits  arrive,  'D'  and  'E,'  which  I  marked 
differently  with  colored  powder;  ten  minutes  after,  two 
others,  'F'  and  'G,'  and  A,  C,  D,  E,  [F  in  the  text, 
evidently  a  typographical  error]  and  G  came  for  nectar, 
B  and  F  for  pollen.  There  were  seven  bees  visiting  in  place 
of  three.  The  number  of  flowering  branches  was  double, 
the  number  of  collectors  was  about  double.^ 

1  "Similar  experiments  have  shown  me  that  the  number  of  bees  visiting 
a  definite  number  of  flowers  of  the  same  species  under  similar  environmental 
conditions  is  quite  proportional  to  the  number  of  flowers,  except  when 


The  Life  of  the  Individual  123 

"The  next  day  other  searchers  came.  The  seven  marked 
bees  continued  their  visits.  I  took  some  pollen  from  the 
stamens  of  Lycium  and  put  it  in  a  mass  below  the  nectar  of 
one  flower.  When  bee  'C  arrived  at  that  flower,  she 
stretched  out  her  proboscis  as  usual  to  sUck  up  the  sweet 
liquid  but  saw  that  it  was  not  there  and  that  something 
different  was  in  the  flower;  she  examined  it  carefully  for 
more  than  a  minute,  did  not  collect  the  pollen  but  renounced 
it  and  went  to  pump  nectar  in  the  neighboring  flowers.  I 
made  the  inverse  experiment  and  bathed  the  pollen  of  one 
flower  in  nectar;  *F,'  after  pollen,  came  to  this  flower, 
found  the  sweet  liquid  on  the  anthers,  examined  it,  did  not 
touch  the  anthers  of  that  flower,  but  renounced  it  and  went 
to  continue  her  collecting  on  the  neighboring  flowers." 

Bonnier  further  found  that  certain  bees  confined  their 
visits  to  a  certain  limited  portion  of  a  row  of  plants  which 
were  all  in  bloom.  He  concludes  as  follows:  ''They  thus 
accomplish  on  the  whole,  the  collection  of  the  most  in  the 
least  possible  time  of  the  substances  necessary  to  all  colonies 
of  bees  in  the  same  region." 

If  division  of  labor  as  described  by  Bonnier  is  even  par- 
tially true,  it  may  help  us  to  understand  why  it  happens 
that  the  flowers  visited  on  a  single  trip  are  usually  of  one 
species.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  these  interesting  observations 
may  be  repeated  by  other  investigators. 

Pollen  gathering. 

Pollen  is  carried  to  the  hive  in  the  pollen  baskets  or  cor- 
biculse  (Fig.  63)  situated  on  the  outer  surface  of  the  tibise  of 
the  third  pair  of  legs.  The  activities  of  the  bees  in  collect- 
ing pollen  have  been  admirably  described  by  Casteel.^  In 
collecting  from  a  flower,  the  worker  not  only  secures  pollen 
on  its  mandibles  and  tongue  but  also  on  the  hairs  of  the  legs 

the  visit  is  disturbed  by  the  arrival  of  wild  Hymenoptera  as  numerous." 
—  Bonnier. 

*  Casteel,  D.  B.,  1912.  The  behavior  of  the  honey  bee  in  pollen  collect- 
ing.    Bui.  No.  121,  Bureau  of  Entomology,  36  pp. 


124 


Beekeeping 


and  body,  and  this  pollen  must  be  transferred  to  the  baskets 
and  securely  packed  before  returning  to  the  hive.  This  is 
done  either  while  resting  on  the  flower  or  on  the  wing.  The 
action  of  the  pollen  brushes  on  the  legs  is  as  follows:  (1) 
those  of  the  first  pair  of  legs  remove  pollen  grains  from  the 


Cbr6icu/a 


J}3ia 


Fig.  64.  —  Flying  bee,  showing  movements  of 
legs  in  pollen  collecting.     Enlarged. 


i/'ia/ifa 


Fig.  63.  —  Outer  surface 
of  the  left  hind  leg  of 
a  worker. 


Fig.  65.  —  Flying   bee   patting  pollen  on 
the  pollen  baskets.     Enlarged. 


head  and  the  region  of  the  neck,  and  also  take  the  moistened 
pollen  from  the  mouth-parts  (Fig.  64),  (2)  those  of  the  second 
pair  remove  pollen  from  the  thorax,  especially  from  the 
ventral  portion,  and  also  receive  the  pollen  collected  by  the 
front  legs,  (3)  the  third  pair  of  legs  collect  pollen  from  the 


The  Life  of  the  Individual 


125 


on  Pit 


abdomen  and  also   receive  on  the 

pollen  combs   (Fig.  64)  the  pollen 

collected    by    the    second    pair    of 

legs.     The  pollen  is  moistened  by 

the    addition    of    fluid    substances 

which   come  from  the  mouth  and 

Casteel  presents  analyses  (by  Dun- 
bar) showing  that  honey  is  used  for 

this  purpose. 

The    method    of    loading    pollen 

on    the    pollen   baskets    has    been 

variously  described,  it  usually  being 

stated  that  it  is  put  in  place  by  the 

second  pair  of  legs.     This  is  not  the 

usual  method,  however,  although  a 

little  pollen  is  added  to  the  mass 

while  the  bee  pats  down  its  load 

with  the  second  pair  of  legs  (Fig. 

65).     The  loading  is  accomplished 

by    the    rubbing    together    of    the 

inner    surfaces    of    the    hind    legs 

(Figs.  66  and  67).     It  is  removed 

from   the  pollen   combs   by  the   pecten  combs,  is  pushed 

upward  by  pressure  of  the  auricles  and  is  forced  against 

the    distal    ends   of    the   tibiae    and    on   into    the   pollen 

baskets  from 
below,  being 
pushed  upward 
against  any  pol- 
len that  may 
have  been 
loaded  previ- 
ously. The  long 
lateral  hairs  of 
the  pollen  bas- 
kets help  to  re- 

FiG.  67.  —  Flying  bee  loading  the  pollen  baskets.         tain    the    pollen 


Fig.  66.  —  Inner  surface  of 
left  hind  leg  of  worker. 


126  Beekeeping 

masses.  It  is  thus  clear  that  the  so-called  wax-shears, 
formed  by  the  pecten  and  auricle,  are  part  of  the  apparatus 
for  pollen  packing  and,  as  shown  earlier  (p.  110),  they  have 
nothing  to  do  with  wax  manipulation.  Casteel  shows  also 
that  in  packing  pollen  in  the  cells  of  the  combs  additional 
moisture  is  probably  used,  for  analyses  show  a  higher  per- 
centage of  sugar  than  in  pollen  from  the  legs. 

Propolis  collection. 

The  collection  of  propolis  has  not  been  so  adequately 
described.  This  substance  consists  of  gums  collected  from 
various  trees  and  other  materials  of  a  similar  consistency. 
The 'bees  carry  it  to  the  hive  on  the  pollen  baskets,  the  load 
sometimes  appearing  smooth  and  shiny,  at  other  times 
rough,  depending  upon  the  material  collected.  It  is  usually 
gathered  most  abundantly  in  late  summer  and  autumn, 
and  races  of  bees  differ  in  the  amount  of  propolis  which  they 
collect.  Caucasian  bees  are  troublesome  because  of  the 
great  quantities  which  they  deposit  in  the  hive  (p.  197). 
Inside  the  hive,  propolis  is  deposited  on  rough  surfaces,  in 
cracks  and  openings  that  are  smaller  than  a  bee-space 
(p.  26)  and  sometimes  on  the  upper  portions  of  the  combs. 
The  *' travel-stain"  frequently  seen  on  comb-honey  is 
propolis.  Heddon  showed  some  years  ago  that  bees  do  not 
deposit  it  on  smooth  surfaces. 

The  collection  of  water  is  most  commonly  observed  in 
early  spring  and  during  the  hottest  part  of  the  summer, 
there  probably  being  less  need  for  water  when  the  humidity 
within  the  hive  is  high.  It  is  carried  to  the  hive  in  the  honey- 
stomach  (Fig.  60),  as  is  nectar. 

DURATION   OF  LIFE 

The  length  of  life  of  the  various  members  of  the  colony 
under  different  conditions  presents  a  problem  of  great  in- 
terest.    The  queen  bee  normally  lives  several  years,  while 


The  Life  of  the  Individual  127 

the  workers,  which  develop  from  eggs  identical  with  those 
from  which  queens  develop,  live  from  a  few  weeks  in  summer 
to  possibly  six  months  over  winter  in  the  North.^  Drones 
usually  live  not  to  exceed  four  months,  unless  they  are  in 
queenless  colonies,  in  which  case  they  are  sometimes  reported 
to  live  over  winter.  Death  comes  suddenly  to  the  drone  at 
the  time  of  mating,  seemingly  of  shock.  If  a  drone  is  caught 
on  the  wing  during  the  time  of  mating  and  is  slightly  pressed, 
the  male  organs  are  ejected  and  the  drone  instantly  dies. 
Obviously  this .  death  by  shock  does  not  concern  us  in  a 
study  of  the  normal  term  of  life.^ 

The  most  interesting  phases  of  this  subject  are  the  phe- 
nomena observed  in  worker  bees.  Those  bees  which  emerge 
somewhat  before  the  beginning  of  a  heavy  honey-flow,  so 
that  they  begin  their  field  duties  when  there  is  heavy  work 
in  gathering  nectar,  usually  Uve  only  about  six  weeks,  but 
if  when  the  outside  work  begins  there  is  no  nectar  available, 
the  duration  of  life  is  much  greater.  Those  workers  which 
emerge  at  the  end  of  the  brood-rearing  season  are  the  ones 
which  must  live  until  the  next  spring  if  the  colony  is  to  sur- 
vive. It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  the  length  of  life  of  the 
workers  is  influenced  to  a  marked  degree  by  the  conditions 
under  which  they  live.  Similarly,  queens  live  longer  if 
they  are  called  on  to  lay  eggs  less  abundantly,  and  it  is  ob- 
served that  in  the  tropics  and  semi-tropics,  queens  do  not 
live  as  long  as  in  the  North,  where  the  brood-rearing  season 
is  relatively  short .^  Further  evidence  of  a  similar  nature  is 
afforded  by  various  facts  observed  in  practical  beekeeping. 
Some  honey-flows   seem   to  deplete  the  colony  more   than 

^  The  method  of  determining  the  length  of  life  of  bees  is  identical  with 
that  of  determining  the  duties  of  bees  at  different  ages. 

2  Bumblebee  drones  do  not  die  at  mating  time,  according  to  a  quota- 
tion given  by  Weismann,  without  the  reference. 

3  It  is  difficult  to  draw  any  conclusions  from  the  length  of  life  of  queen 
bees  since  they  are  superseded  by  the  workers  when  they  fail  in  egg-laying. 
Death  is  often  not  natural  with  them.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  al- 
though they  can  continue  to  form  new  eggs  in  the  ovaries  (in  contrast  to 
some  female  insects  which  lay  but  one  or  two  lots  of  eggs)  they  gradually 
fail  in  this  respect. 


128  Beekeeping 

others ;  if  there  is  but  Httle  honey  in  the  field  the  death  rate 
often  is  greater  than  if  there  were  no  nectar  available  or 
than  is  the  case  when  there  is  plenty  of  nectar.  The  work 
necessary  to  get  the  nectar  costs  more  than  the  nectar  is 
worth.  Beekeepers  often  observe  at  the  close  of  a  severe 
winter  what  is  known  as  ''spring  dwindling."  This  is,  to 
the  best  of  our  knowledge,  due  to  the  fact  that  during  cold 
weather  the  bees  have  had  to  work  vigorously  to  generate 
heat  and  that,  when  the  spring  comes  with  its  increased 
activities  incident  to  brood-rearing,  the  bees  are  worn  out 
and  die  rapidly. 

Work  determines  length  of  life. 

All  of  these  facts  and  many  others  observed  in  the  apiary 
indicate  a  peculiar  condition  found  in  bees  which  may  be 
figuratively  expressed  in  the  following  terms :  a  bee  is  born 
with  a  definite  supply  of  energy  and  when  this  energy  is 
exhausted  the  bee  dies.  It  may  be  likened  to  a  storage 
battery  that  continues  to  give  out  its  stored  energy  until 
it  is  exhausted,  but  unlike  the  storage  battery  the  bee  seem- 
ingly cannot  be  "recharged."  In  our  own  experience,  we 
find  that  after  exhausting  exercise,  rest  and  food  enable  us 
to  recover  completely  from  the  exhaustion,  and  we  are  prob- 
ably better  for  the  exercise.  It  must  not  be  concluded 
from  what  has  been  said  that  bees  have  no  recuperative 
power,  but  it  is  obvious  from  the  various  facts  observed 
that  in  some  fundamental  way  their  term  of  life  is  limited 
by  the  amount  of  work  they  do. 

Practical  applications. 

Success  in  practical  beekeeping  rests  in  a  recognition  of 
this  phenomenon  of  the  wearing  out  of  bees,  but  nowhere 
is  this  more  evident  than  in  wintering.  In  order  that  the 
bees  may  live  over  winter  and  still  have  energy  to  do  the 
work  required  of  them,  under  the  trying  conditions  of  spring, 
the  bees  should  be  kept  under  conditions  which  will  require 
of  them  the  minimum  exertion.     This  the  northern  beekeeper 


The  Life  of  the  Individual  129 

attempts  to  do  by  keeping  the  bees  in  the  cellar  or  by  pack- 
ing the  hives  during  the  coldest  months.  As  will  be  explained 
in  the  chapter  on  wintering,  the  character  of  the  food  is 
an  important  factor  in  the  reduction  of  the  necessary  labor. 

Possible  determining  factors. 

The  cause  of  the  wearing  out  of  bees  is  not  fully  under- 
stood, because  there  are  so  many  phases  of  bee  physiology 
about  which  we  are  ignorant.  An  old  bee  loses  the  hairs 
on  the  body  and  the  wings  often  become  frayed.  These 
parts  are  not  replaced,  since  in  the  adult  they  are  non-living 
chitinous  structures,  but  it  can  scarcely  be  believed  that 
these  factors  are  sufficient  to  cause  the  death  of  the  insect. 
The  fact  that  the  larger  number  of  bees  die  outside  the  hive 
during  the  active  season  perhaps  lends  weight  to  a  belief 
that  worn-out  wings  have  failed  to  carry  them  back.  How- 
ever, if  bees  are  confined  in  a  cage  and  are  constantly  stimu- 
lated, they  wear  themselves  out  and  die,  when  wings  could 
be  of  no  help  to  them.  Koschevnikov  ^  has  described  the 
fat  body  of  the  bee  and  records  that  in  old  age  the  fat  cells 
become  less  vacuolated  and  the  cells  are  filled  with  a  granu- 
lar plasma,  while  the  cells  become  united  into  a  syncytium, 
in  which  the  cell  boundaries  are  lost  and  the  nuclei  remain 
distinct.  The  oenoc3rfces  are  rather  mysterious  cells,  found 
in  the  fat  bodies  of  insects.  In  the  old  bee,  these  become 
filled  with  yellow  granules,  which  Koschevnikov  thinks  are 
excretory  products  which  cannot  be  eliminated  but  are 
simply  retained  by  the  cells.  These  facts  suggest  the  possi- 
bility that  old  age  in  a  bee  is  due  to  lack  of  the  excretory 
function  of  these  cells,  but  far  more  evidence  is  necessary 
for  adequate  explanation. 

Some  comparisons  with  other  insects  help  to  make  clear 
the  difficulty  of  the  problem  which  confronts  us  in  the 
phenomenon  of  old  age  in  the  bee.^    Worker  ants  have  been 

^  Koschevnikov,  G.  A.,  1900,     Ueber  den  Fettkorper  und  die  (Enocyten 
der  Honigbiene  (Apis  mellifera,  L.)  Zool.  Anz.,  XXIII,  pp.  337-353. 
2  For  an  interesting  discussion  of  the  duration  of  life,  the  reader  is  re-. 
K 


130  Beekeeping 

kept  for  several  years  in  artificial  nests  and  Lubbock  * 
reports  keeping  a  queen  ant  of  Formica  fusca  for  nearly 
fifteen  years,  ''by  far  the  oldest  insect  on  record."  Queen 
bees  live  several  years  and  it  may  be  that  if  worker  bees 
were  equally  well  cared  for  and  fed  they  might  live  as  long 
as  the  queen.  We  get  no  light  on  the  potential  length  of  life 
of  bumblebees  and  wasps  because  the  colony  is  not  main- 
tained over  winter ;  possibly  if  they  were  protected  as  bees 
are  or  could  hibernate  like  ants  they  might  live  for  several 
years.  It  is  perhaps  not  legitimate  to  compare  the  larval 
or  pupal  stages  of  insects  which  require  several  years  for 
their  development  (e.g.  Cicada,  Lachnosterna).  Among 
insects  ants  are  perhaps  the  patriarchs,  while  most  insects 
live  but  a  few  days,  weeks  or  months.  Many  insects  take 
little  or  no  food  as  adults  (e.g.  females  of  Psychidse,  Phry- 
ganids,  males  of  Phylloxera)  and  it  is  therefore  not  surprising 
that  they  do  not  live  long.  If,  now,  we  compare  ants  and 
bees,  we  find  them  similarly  constructed,  similarly  they  live 
in  colonies  and  their  activities  are  in  many  ways  almost  iden- 
tical. The  marked  differences  are  in  the  facts  (1)  that 
bees  fly  while  ants  do  not  and  (2)  that  ants  live  on  a  mixed 
diet  while  bees  in  the  adult  stage  live  chiefly  on  sugars. 

f erred  to  Weismann's  essay  "The  Duration  of  Life"  (Dauer  des  Lebens) 
in  his  Essays  on  Heredity  (English  translation,  1891,  Oxford).  Prof. 
Weismann  considers  death  an  adaptation,  as  secondarily  acquired,  produced 
by  natural  selection,  not  a  primary  necessity  of  living  matter  and  that 
"unlimited  existence  of  individuals  would  be  a  luxury  without  any  corre- 
sponding advantage"  to  the  species.  Death  is  a  "beneficial  occurrence," 
whereby  worn-out  individuals  which  are  harmful  to  the  species  are  re- 
moved, leaving  room  for  those  which  are  sound.  According  to  this  view, 
duration  of  life  is  hereditary  (for  which  there  is  much  evidence)  and  there- 
fore we  should  expect  workers  and  queens  to  be  potentially  equal  in  dura- 
tion of  life  (1.  c,  p.  60),  if  the  workers  were  as  well  protected  as  the  queens. 
This  is  seemingly  true  for  ants.  However,  it  is  difficult  to  comprehend 
the  cause  of  an  adaptation  which  leads  to  the  use  of  food  which  fails  to 
nourish  the  body  and  thereby  shortens  the  term  of  life,  since  it  is  not  evident 
in  what  way  a  shorter  span  of  life  for  the  workers  is  of  benefit  to  the  species. 
Beekeepers  would  probably  be  inclined  to  believe  that  if  they  could  get 
worker  bees  which  would  live  as  long  as  do  worker  ants  that  it  would  be 
advantageous  to  the  honey-producer,  if  not  to  the  bees  themselves. 
1  Lubbock,  Sir  John,  Jr.  Linn.  Soc.  (Zool.)  XX,  p.  133. 


The  Life  of  the  Individual  131 

Probably  bees  consume  more  pollen  than  beekeepers  usually 
believe  but  their  main  source  of  nourishment  is  honey. 
Carbohydrates  do  not  furnish  the  nourishment  suitable 
for  the  rebuilding  of  worn-out  tissues  and  this  may  be  at 
least  a  partial  explanation  of  the  differences  in  the  term 
of  life.  The  queen  is,  however,  fed  on  predigested  food  all 
her  life  and  it  is  usually  assumed  that  this  is  comparable 
to  royal  jelly.  If  this  assumption  is  correct,  her  food  pro- 
vides her  with  fats  and  proteids  as  well  as  sugars. 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  LIFE  PROCESSES  OF  THE  INDIVIDUAL 

The  discussion  in  previous  chapters  has  had  to  do  with 
the  colony  of  bees  and  with  the  individual  bees  in  their 
relation  to  the  colony.  To  give  a  more  complete  account 
of  the  activities  of  the  bees  and  to  present  a  better  con- 
ception of  what  manner  of  animal  a  bee  is,  it  is  necessary 
to  discuss  certain  life  processes  of  the  adult  individual. 
The  entire  form  and  structure  of  the  body  is  so  fundamentally 
different  from  that  of  man  that  it  is  difficult  to  form  an  ade- 
quate idea  of  the  life  activities.  In  this  chapter  mention  of 
two  important  systems  of  organs  is  omitted,  the  nervous 
system  with  its  sense  organs  and  the  reproductive  organs, 
the  structure  and  functions  of  these  systems  being  so  im- 
portant that  a  separate  chapter  is  devoted  to  each  one. 

To  understand  the  life  processes,  it  is  obviously  necessary 
to  know  the  structure  of  the  parts  which  function  in  the 
various  activities.  Fortunately  the  anatomy  of  the  honey- 
bee has  been  carefully  studied  and  described  by  Snodgrass.^ 
Previous  to  the  appearance  of  this  paper  various  books  and 
papers  on  bee  anatomy  were  published  but  unfortunately 
in  many  cases  the  descriptions  were  erroneous  and  the 
conclusions  unjustified. 

In  presenting  the  subject  in  the  present  case,  it  seems 
desirable  not  to  discuss  anatomy  separately  but  rather  to 
treat  the  bee  as  a  living  animal  and  to  describe  the  functions 
of  the  various  systems  of  organs,  giving  only  the  anatomical 

1  Snodgrass,  R.  E.,  1910.  The  anatomy  of  the  honey  bee.  Tech.  Ser. 
18,  Bureau  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agric,  162  pp.,  57  ill. 

132 


The  Life  Processes  of  the  Individual  133 

data  necessary  to  elucidate  the  points  discussed.  This 
point  of  view  is  to  be  preferred  as  being  of  greater  interest 
to  persons  who  are  not  speciaUsts  in  morphology  and,  after 
all  is  said,  our  chief  interest  in  any  animal  lies  in  the  fact 
that  it  lives  and  moves  rather  than  that  it  has  legs  or  a 
stomach  of  a  certain  structure  and  form.  This  view  is 
emphasized  by  Snodgrass  who  also  shows  in  numerous 
places  our  woeful  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  details  of  the 
physiology  of  the  bee.  Since  anatomy  is  not  treated  fully  in 
this  book,  the  reader  may  find  certain  points  not  described 
sufficiently  to  meet  his  needs.  In  the  illustrations  used  in 
this  chapter,  all  of  which  are  from  Snodgrass,  parts  are 
shown  which  are  not  here  described  and  symbols  are  used 
which  are  not  explained.  Partially  to  remedy  these  neces- 
sary shortcomings,  the  sjmnbols  used  by  Snodgrass  are 
given  in  the  Appendix  (pp.  439-448).  For  fuller  descrip- 
tions the  reader  is  referred  to  his  admirable  bulletin. 

GENERAL  PLAN  OF  THE  BODY  OF  THE  BEE 

The  plan  of  organization  of  the  bee  is  quite  unlike  that 
of  the  human  body.  The  structure  of  the  body  as  a  whole 
and  of  the  various  organs  is  different  from  that  with  which 
we  are  most  familiar  and  it  is  imperative  that  we  avoid 
forming  conclusions  as  to  the  functions  of  various  organs 
from  supposed  homologies.  First  of  all,  there  is  no  internal 
skeleton  for  the  attachment  of  muscles  and  to  serve  as  a 
support  for  the  organs  of  the  body,  but  the  chitinous  cover- 
ing serves  as  a  skeleton.  The  body  of  the  bee  is  divided 
into  three  portions,  head,  thorax  and  abdomen,  the  legs 
and  wings  being  attached  to  the  thorax. 

The  three  portions  of  the  body  differ  greatly  in  function. 
The  head  is  the  seat  of  the  brain  and  carries  the  two  kinds 
of  eyes  (three  simple  eyes  and  two  large  compound  eyes), 
and  the  antennae  (feelers),  which  are  covered  with  sense 
organs.  It  also  carries  the  complex  mouth  parts.  The 
thorax  is   chiefly   concerned   in   locomotion,   being   almost 


134 


Beekeeping 


entirely  occupied  by  large  muscles  for  the  movement  of  the 
wings.  The  abdomen  contains  the  greater  part  of  the 
alimentary  canal,  the  reproductive  organs  and  large  air 
sacs.  It  will  of  course  be  understood  that  the  functions 
of  these  three  main  parts  are  not  confined  to  those  named. 
The  tracheal  sacs  extend  into  the  thorax  and  head,  the 
nervous  system  extends  along  the  central  side  of  the  thorax 
and  abdomen. 

Head. 

On  the  head  are  located  numerous  sense  organs,  the  dis- 
cussion of  which  is  reserved  for  a  later  chapter.     Aside 


Vx.       ten 


PrbFs 


mi  fei 


Fig.   68.  —  Front  (A)   and  back   (B)   views   of  head  of  worker  bee  with 
the  mouth  parts  cut  off  near  their  bases. 


from  these,  the  most  interesting  features  are  the  complex 
mouth  parts.  The  general  appearance  of  the  head  of  a 
worker  bee  (with  all  the  hairs  removed)  is  shown  in  the 
accompanying  figure  (Fig.  68,  A  and  B).  It  is  roughly 
triangular  with  the  apex  below,  where  the  mouth  parts 
are  situated.  The  sides  are  rounded  out  by  the  compound 
eves  {E).     From  front  to  back,  the  head  is  flattened  and 


The  Life  Processes  of  the  Individual  135 


is  concave  on  the  posterior  surface  to  fit  the  rounded  thorax. 
The  three  ocelU  (0)  in  the  worker  are  arranged  in  a  triangle 
at  the  top  of  the  head,  the  antennae  (Ant)  arise  from  the 
center  of  the  face.  On  the  posterior  surface  is  the  foramen 
magnum  (For)  through  which  pass  nerves, 
oesophagus,  dorsal  blood  vessel  and  tra- 
cheal tubes  connecting  the  head  and 
thorax.  Below  the  foramen  magnum  is 
the  fossa  (PrhFs)  where  the  proboscis 
is  attached. 

The  heads  of  the  queen  and  the  drone 
differ  from  that  of  the  worker  in  size  and 
shape  (Fig.  69,  A,  B  and  C).  The  face 
of  the  queen  (B)  is  more  nearly  round 
and  is  relatively  wider.  That  of  the 
drone  (C)  is  larger  and  nearly  circular, 
this  being  due  to  the  unusual  develop- 
ment of  the  compound  eyes  (E)  which 
meet  at  the  vertex  of  the  head,  crowd- 
ing the  ocelli  (0)  to  the  front  near  the 
bases  of  the  antennae.  The  head  of  the 
queen  is  smaller  than  that  of  the  worker. 

The  mandibles  (Fig.  68,  A,  Md)  or 
jaws,  which  are  of  special  interest  to  the 
beekeeper,  are  situated  on  the  sides  of 
the  mouth  anterior  to  the  base  of  the 
proboscis,  being  attached  to  the  clypeus 
{Clp)  and  the  postgena  iPge)  by  two 
articulations,  so  constructed  that  they 
serve  only  to  crush  or  bite  food  and 
not  to  grind  it.  The  mandibles  of  in- 
sects, when  present,  work  sidewise  and 
not  up  and  down  in  a  median  plane,  as  do  our  jaws.  The 
mandibles  of  the  three  types  of  bees  differ  in  shape  and  size. 
Those  of  the  worker  (Fig.  70,  A)  are  hollowed  out  and  have 
smooth  and  rounded  edges,  while  those  of  the  drone  (Fig.  70, 
B)  and  of  the  queen  (Fig.  69,  B)  are  pointed  and  notched. 


Fig.  69.  —  Anterior 
view  of  heads  of 
worker  {A),  queen 
{B)  and  drone  (C), 
with  front,  anten- 
nae and  proboscis 
removed  from  each. 


136 


Beekeeping 


The  typical  mandible  of  the 
Hymenoptera  is  like  those  of 
the  queen  and  drone  while  the 
worker  mandible  is  a  specialized 
type.  The  fact  that  the  worker 
mandible  is  smooth  and  rounded 
is  often  pointed  out  in  connec- 
tion with  the  fact  that  worker 
bees  cannot  puncture  fruit.  It 
need  scarcely  be  said  that  queens 
and  drones  never  injure  fruit. 
The  mandibles  are  moved  by 
two  sets  of  muscles  (Fig.  70,  A, 
EMcl  and  RMcl)  with  their  origin 
in  the  head.  On  each  mandi- 
ble is  the  opening  of  a  gland 
(iMdGl),  located  in  the  head 
(Fig.  69,  A,  B;  Fig.  70,  A,  B), 
which    is    a    large    sac    in    the 

worker  (Fig.  70,  A)  but  is  reduced  in  the  drone  (Fig.  70, 

B).     In  the  queen  (Fig.  69,  B)  it  reaches  its  greatest  size. 

It  was   originally  described   by 

Wolff  ^  as  a  mucous  gland  which 

serves  to  keep  the  surface  of  the 

roof  of  the  mouth  moist,  where 

he  thought  the  olfactory  organs 

are   located.     The   function   of 

this  gland  is  not  clear,  but  it  is 

supposed  by  Arnhart  ^  to  func- 
tion   in    softening    wax.     This 

theory  rests   on  the   assumption      Fig.  71.- internal   mandibular 

made    by   Cheshire   and   others         gland  {2MdGi)  of  worker. 


Fig.  70.  —  A,  right  mandible 
of  worker  with  muscles  and 
mandibular  gland  (IMdGl) 
attached ;  B,  corresponding 
view  of  mandible  of  drone 
with  muscles  cut  off. 


2MdCl 


1  Wolff,  O.  J.  B.,  1875.  Das  Riechorgan  der  Biene.  Nova  Acta  der  Ksl. 
Leop.-Carol.   Deutsch.  Akad.  der  Naturf.,   XXXVIII,  pp.   1-251. 

2  Arnhart,  Ludwig,  1906.  Anatomic  und  Physiologic  der  Honigbiene. 
In  Alfonsus'  "Allgemeines  Lehrbuch  der  Bienenzucht,"  Wien.  (99  pp., 
4  pis.,  53  figs.). 


The  Life  Processes  of  the  Individual  137 


Fig.  72.  —  Mouth  parts  of  the  worker:  A,  tip  of  glossa ;  B,  same  from 
above  ;  C,  small  piece  of  glossal  rod  ;  D,  parts  forming  the  proboscis, 
flattened  out,  ventral  view ;  E,  cross-section  of  glossa ;  F,  end  of 
mentum  {Mt)  and  bases  of  ligula  (Lg)  and  labial  palpi  (LbPlp) ; 
G,  lateral  view  of  proboscis,  showing  parts  on  left  side ;  H,  lateral 
view  of  glossa  with  its  rod  detached. 

that  the  wax  is  changed  chemically  when  it  is  manipulated 
by  the  mandibles.  A  second  gland  (Fig.  71,  2MdGl)  is 
found  in  workers  only  on  the  inner  wall  of  the  postgena 
{Pge)  with  an  opening  at  the  base  of  the  mandibles. 


138  Beekeeping 

The  proboscis  consists  of  the  external  mouth  parts  other 
than  the  mandibles  (Fig.  68,  Prh,  Fig.  72,  A-H).  This 
group  of  organs  serves  in  taking  up  liquid  food.  The  name 
''tongue"  is  usually  given  to  the  slender  median  portion 
{Gls)  but  is  loosely  applied  to  the  three  median  parts,  the 
labrum.  Snodgrass  {I.e.  pp.  44-45)  explains  the  relation 
of  these  parts  to  the  mouth  parts  of  other  insects  and  points 
out  the  true  homologies,  at  the  same  time  showing  the 
errors  into  which  various  writers  on  bee  anatomy  have 
fallen.  The  accompanying  illustration  (Fig.  72,  A-H) 
shows  the  structure  of  the  organs  of  the  proboscis.  It 
will  be  seen  (Fig.  72,  D)  that  there  are  three  terminal  pieces, 
the  central  glossa  {Gls)  and  two  lateral  labial  palpi  {LhPlp) 
arising  from  the  mentum  {Mi),  a  median  basal  sclerite, 
and  two  maxillae,  arising  from  separate  basal  pieces,  the 
stipes  {St).  These  in  turn  articulate  with  the  lorum  (Lr), 
a  flexible  band  connecting  with  the  cardines  {Cd)  which 
attach  the  whole  proboscis  to  the  head  at  the  fossa  of  the 
proboscis  {PrhFs,  Fig.  68,  B),  on  which  it  is  suspended. 

The  maxillae  {Mx)  are  articulated  by  the  cardines  {Cd) 
to  the  maxillary  suspensoria  on  the  side  walls  of  the  fossa 
while  the  mentum  {Mt)  articulates  with  the  submentum 
{Smt)  which  is  held  in  the  lorum  {Lr).  These  parts  are 
suspended  in  the  membrane  in  the  fossa  floor,  giving  great 
freedom  of  movement. 

The  glossa  {Gls)  is  covered  with  circles  of  hairs  and  the 
tip  (labellum,  Lhl)  is  spoon-shaped.  The  tip  is  protected  by 
spiny  hairs  (^r),  formerly  supposed  to  be  taste  organs,  between 
which  is  the  end  of  the  ventral  groove  (k)  of  the  glossa. 

When  the  proboscis  is  not  in  use  the  labium  and  maxillae 
are  folded  back  against  the  mentum  and  stipes.  When 
in  use,  these  parts  are  unfolded  and  held  together.  In 
sucking  liquid  the  base  of  the  labium  slides  between  the 
bases  of  the  maxillae.  To  acquire  this  motion,  the  sub- 
mentum turns  on  the  lorum  and  the  mentum  turns  on 
its  articulation  with  the  submentum.  This  gives  the  men- 
tum a  forward  and  backward  movement  and  the  labium 


The  Life  Processes  of  the  Individual  139 


is  pulled  and  pushed  through  the  maxillae.     This  motion 

doubtless    effects    a   pumping    action,  bringing   the    liquid 

through  the  temporary  tube  ^^ 

formed  by  the  .curling  of  the 

glossa.     It  is  probably  sucked 

farther  by  the  pharynx.     The 

glossa  is   also   retracted   into 

the  mentum  and  this  with  its 

own  contractility  gives  it  great 

flexibility  of  movement. 

Thorax. 

As  explained  earlier  (p.  99), 
the  functional  thorax  of  the 
bee  (Figs.  73  and  74)  con- 
sists of  the  three  segments 
which  form  the  thorax  in 
other  orders  of  insects  and 
the  segment  which  is  the  first 
abdominal  segment  of  other 
orders.  This  modification  is 
found  in  most  other  Hymen- 
optera  ^  but  the  fact  has  seem- 
ingly escaped  most  writers  on 
bees.  The  prothorax  (1st 
thoracic  segment)  is  reduced 
and  the  first  pair  of  legs, 
arising  from  this  segment,  are 
loosely  attached.  The  meso- 
thorax  (2d  thoracic  segment) 
is  specially  well  developed  to 
accommodate  the  large  mus- 
cles which  propel  the  fore  wings,  while  the  metathorax  (3d 
thoracic  segment)  is  reduced,  consisting  only  of  a  narrow 
plate    (TS),   the  metatergum,.  and  two   lateral   plates  on 


Fig.  73.  —  Dorsal  view  of  ventral 
walls  and  internal  skeleton  of 
worker.     Much  enlarged. 


1  Snodgrass,  R.  E.,  1909.     Proc.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  XXXVI,  pp.  511- 
595. 


140 


Beekeeping 


Fig.  74.  —  Thorax  of  worker,  showing 
propodium  or  first  abdominal  segment 
(IT). 


each  side  (pleural  plates, 
PIS  and  pW).  The 
tergum  (dorsal  plate) 
of  the  first  abdominal 
segment  (IT)  is  fixed 
to  the  metathorax.  The 
posterior  portion  of  this 
segment  (propodium  or 
median  segment)  forms 
the  peduncle  (Pd)  to 
which  the  functional 
abdomen  is  attached. 
The  legs  and  wings  are 
discussed  under  organs 
of  locomotion  (p.  154). 


Abdomen. 

The  abdomen  of  the  female  bees  (queens  and  workers) 
appears  to  consist  of  six  segments   (Fig.   75)  but  to  this 
number  must  be  added  the  modified  abdominal  segment 
on  the  thorax  (IT).     In 
the  drones,  there  are  ad- 
ditional   segments    par- 
tially visible  externally. 
Snodgrass     has     figured 
(Fig.  76)  the  tip  of  the 
abdomen  of  the  worker, 
showing  that  the  eighth 
abdominal  segment  is  in- 
vaginated  and  the  eighth 
abdominal  spiracle  opens 
within  the  invagination. 

Zander  ^  further  claims  that  the  quadrate  plate  (Qd)  is  a 
part  of  the  ninth  tergum.     The  anal  opening  (An)  is  in  a 


Fig.   75. 


Lateral    view  of  abdomen   of 
worker. 


1  Zander,  Enoch,  1899.     Beitrage  zur  Morphologic  des  Stachelapparates 
der  Hymenopteren.  Zeit.  fur  wiss.  Zoologie,  LXVII,  pp.  288-333. 


The  Life  Processes  of  the  Individual 


141 


tube  (without  chitin)  which  represents  the  tenth  abdominal 
segment  (X)  so  that  the  bee,  Uke  most  other  insects,  has 
ten  abdominal  segments.  In  the  drone,  nine  of  these  seg- 
ments are  partially  visible.  The  plates  of  the  abdomen 
are  easily  movable,  being  connected  by  membranes  so  that 
the  abdomen  may  be  distended  by  food,  or  in  the  queen 
by  the  growth  of  the  ovaries.  In  the  typical  segments 
(II-VII),  there  is  a  tergum  (T)  covering  the  dorsal  and 
lateral  surfaces,  overlapping  a  sternum  (S)  or  ventral  piece. 
The  spiracles  (see  p.  151)  {Sp)  are  on  the  terga  (see  Figs. 
73  and  75). 

The  eighth,  ninth 
and  tenth  segments 
of  the  drone  are  not 
typical.  The  tergum 
of  the  eighth  seg- 
ment (Fig.  93,  D, 
VIIIT)  is  partly 
covered  by  that  of 
the  seventh  and  car- 
ries the  most  pos- 
terior of  the  spiracles 
(Sp).  The  sternum 
of  this  segment 

(VI IIS)  is  likewise  concealed  on  the  ventral  side.  The 
dorsal  portion  of  the  ninth  segment  is  chitinized  to  but 
a  small  extent  but  the  ventral  portion  (IXS)  is  chitin- 
ized and  carries  two  pairs  of  clasping  organs,  used  during 
copulation  {IClsp  and  2Clsp).  The  penis  is  extruded  during 
mating  between  the  clasping  organs. 


Tri      Ob 


Fig.  76.  —  Tip  of  abdoinen  of  worker  with  left 
side  removed,  showing  normal  position  of 
sting  and  anus. 


DIGESTION 


The  workers  take  in  food  not  only  for  their  own  nourish- 
ment but  also  that  they  may  be  able  to  provide  food  for 
the  larvae.  The  queen  eats  frequently,  especially  during 
the  period  of  active  egg-laying,   and  a  rapid  metabolism 


142  Beekeeping 

must  take  place  to  permit  her  to  produce  the  large  number 
of  eggs  which  she  lays  in  the  height  of  her  activities.  The 
larvae,  as  has  been  explained  in  the  previous  chapter,  take 
enormous  quantities  of  food,  given  them  by  the  worker 
bees,  permitting  the  rapid  growth  during  the  short  period 
of  larval  development. 

The  food  of  the  various  members  of  the  colony  all  comes 
from  nectar  and  pollen.  The  workers  eat  honey  and  pollen 
for  their  own  nourishment  but  modify  the  raw  materials 
before  feeding  the  larvae.  They  also  normally  feed  the 
queen  and  the  drones,  but  the  composition  of  the  material 
furnished  is  not  determined.  That  the  raw  materials  may 
serve  their  purpose,  they  must  be  so  modified  that  they 
may  pass  through  the  walls  of  the  alimentary  canal  and 
then  remain  in  a  soluble  condition  in  the  blood  until  taken 
up  by  the  tissues.  To  accomplish  this,  various  digestive 
enzymes  are  needed.  The  source  of  these  will  be  discussed 
later. 

The  digestive  processes  of  the  bee  are  not  thoroughly 
understood.  The  usual  discussions,  which  are  abundantly 
numerous  in  spite  of  our  lack  of  knowledge,  are  too  often 
confined  to  the  drawing  of  analogies  with  human  digestion. 
No  such  analogies  are  permissible  and  it  is,  for  example, 
entirely  unwarranted  to  apply  the  name  "chyle  stomach" 
to  the  ventriculus,  because  of  a  supposed  homology  with 
human  intestinal  digestion.  The  whole  structure  of  the 
insect  alimentary  canal  is  different  from  that  of  man  and  it 
is,  in  fact,  better  not  to  apply  names  to  any  of  the  parts 
which  are  drawn  from  human  anatomy.  It  is  perhaps  per- 
missible to  use  the  terms  mouth,  oesophagus  and  anus  for 
both  insects  and  man,  but  to  call  the  ventriculus  the  chyle 
stomach  or  the  rectal  ampulla  the  large  intestine  is  mislead- 
ing. These  parts  do  not  seem  to  have  homologous  func- 
tions in  man  and  bees. 

The  structure  of  the  alimentary  canal  has  been  well 
described  by  Snodgrass  and  by  other  workers  and  in  so 
far  as  a  knowledge  of  anatomy  is  helpful  there  is  little  room 


The  Life  Processes  of  the  Individual  143 

for  criticism.  There  have  been,  however,  very  few  in- 
vestigations of  the  digestive  processes.  The  digestion  of 
insects  is  discussed  by  Biedermann,^  and  more  recently 
Petersen  2  has  published  a  discussion  of  the  processes  of 
digestion  in  the  honeybee.  This  is  the  first  good  paper  on 
this  subject  and  the  author  is  to  be  commended  for  taking 
a  stand  against  the  making  of  comparisons  with  human 
physiology. 

The  mouth  parts  have  already  been  described  (p.  135), 
and  those  glands  (IGl,  Fig.  59)  which  are  supposed  to  be 
concerned  in  the  production  of  larval  food  have  also  been 
discussed  (p.  111).  Behind  the  mouth  is  an  enlargement 
of  the  alimentary  canal  called  the  pharynx  (Phy,  Fig.  60), 
leading  to  a  long  narrow  tube  extending  through  the  thorax, 
the  oesophagus  {(E).  Behind  the  constriction  between 
the  thorax  and  abdomen,  the  aUmentary  canal  widens  to 
form  the  honey-stomach  (HS),  homologous  to  the  crop  of 
other  insects.  This  is  a  thin-walled,  muscular  organ  used 
by  the  worker  in  carrying  nectar  to  the  hive.  Behind  the 
honey-stomach  is  a  valvular  structure,  the  proventriculus 
(Pvent,  the  anterior  part  being  often  called  the  stomach- 
mouth)  which  separates  the  honey-stomach  from  the  ven- 
triculus  (often  called  the  chyle  stomach).  The  proven- 
triculus is  of  special  interest  in  the  bee,  since  when  closed  it 
prevents  the  nectar  from  mixing  with  the  contents  of  the 
ventriculus  and  makes  it  possible  for  the  honey-stomach  to 
function  as  a  carrying  vessel.  It  is  claimed  by  Schonfeld 
that  the  anterior  end  of  the  proventricular  valve  (nn,  Fig. 
61)  may  be  moved  forward  to  touch  the  posterior  end  of 
the  oesophagus,  so  that  the  contents  of  the  ventriculus 
may  be  forced  out  as  larval  food.  Snodgrass  has  shown 
that  this  cannot  happen  without  tearing  the  muscles  of  the 


1  In  Winterstein's  Handbuch  der  vergleichenden  Physiologie,  vol.  2, 
Heft  I. 

*  Petersen,  Hans,  1912.  Beitrage  zur  vergleichenden  Physiologie  der 
Verdauung.  V.  Die  Verdauung  der  Honigbiene.  Pfliigers'  Arch,  fur  die 
gesammte  Phys.  d.  Menschen  u.  d.  Tiere,  XLV,  pp.  121-151. 


144  Beekeeping 

honey-stomach,  and  furthermore,  as  is  shown  later,  the 
contents  of  the  ventriculus  could  not  escape  were  this  con- 
tortion possible.  Cheshire  claims  that  the  hooks  (at  nn, 
Fig.  61)  of  the  pro  ventriculus  serve  to  separate  the  honey 
and  pollen  in  the  honey-stomach,  but  no  proof  is  presented. 
The  only  known  function  of  the  proventriculus  is  that  of 
opening  to  allow  food  to  pass  to  the  ventriculus.  There 
is  no  evidence  that  it  assists  in  the  mastication  of  pollen. 

Behind  the  proventriculus  is  the  ventriculus  {Vent),  a 
thick-walled  organ,  ringed  by  numerous  constrictions.  It 
consists  (Fig.  77)  of  longitudinal  and  transverse  muscles 
surrounding  a  much  folded  epithelium,  the  cells  of  which 
are  supposed  to  produce  some  of  the  digestive  enzymes. 
The  inner  depressions  of  this  epithelium  are  filled  with  a 
gelatinous  mass  (pp)  which  extends  into  the  lumen.  The 
food  contents  of  the  ventriculus  are  surrounded  by  layers 
of  membrane  (peritrophic  layers.  Fig.  77,  Pmb),  formed 
from  the  gelatinous  mass  in  the  enveloping  epithelium. 
The  peritrophic  layers  are  often  described  as  chitinous  but 
this,  according  to  Petersen,  is  an  error.  These  membranes 
do  not  seem  capable  of  allowing  the  passage  of  the  food  con- 
tained in  them  to  the  ventriculus  wall  and  probably  little 
or  no  absorption  of  food  occurs  here.  Furthermore,  pollen 
is  usually  found  at  the  posterior  end  undigested  and,  ac- 
cording to  Snodgrass,  it  is  not  prepared  for  absorption 
until  it  reaches  the  rectal  ampulla.  Snodgrass  observed 
in  certain  parts  of  the  ventriculus  wall  a  sloughing  off  of 
the  ends  of  the  epithelial  cells  (Enz),  presumably  enzymes, 
which  are  seen  in  the  gelatinous  peritrophic  mass.  Petersen, 
in  confirmation  of  this  view,  found  that  the  peritrophic 
layers  (which  come  from  the  peritrophic  mass  on  the  epithe- 
lium) are  not  chitinous  but  contain  proteoljrtic  ferments. 
The  peritrophic  layers  and  their  attachment  to  the  pro- 
ventricular  valve  effectually  prevent  the  regurgitation 
of  the  contents  of  the  ventriculus  into  the  honey-stomach. 
The  contents  of  the  ventriculus  does  not  at  all  resemble 
larval  food.     It  therefore  appears  clear  that  the  theory  that 


The  Life  Processes  of  the  Individual 


145 


Fig.  77. — Histological  details  of  alimentary  canal  of  worker:  A,  cross- 
section  of  ventriculus ;  B,  section  of  ventriculus  wall ;  C,  section  of 
Malpighian  tubule ;  D,  cross-section  of  small  intestine ;  E,  section  of 
ventriculus  wall,  showing  formation  of  enzyme  cells ;  F,  section  of 
anterior  end  of  rectum*  showing  rectal  glands  {RGl) ;  G,  slightly 
oblique  section  of  posterior  end  of  ventriculus,  showing  openings  of 
Malpighian  tubules. 


larval  food  is  regurgitated  can  no  longer  be  considered  as 
at  all  tenable. 

Behind  the  ventriculus,   the   alimentary   canal  narrows 
to  form  the  small  intestine  (Fig.  60,  SInt)  and  at  the  point 


146.  Beekeeping 

where  the  ventriculus  and  small  intestine  join,  the  Mal- 
pighian  tubes  {Mai)  empty  into  the  aUmentary  canal. 
The  small  intestine  is  coiled  and  finally  empties  into  the 
rectal  ampulla  {Red,  rectum  or  large  intestine).  The  inner 
epithelium  of  the  rectum  is  thrown  into  six  longitudinal 
folds,  the  so-called  rectal  glands  (Fig.  77,  RGl)  of  unknown 
function.  It  is  usually  believed  that  they  increase  the 
absorbing  surface  but,  since  they  are  covered  on  the  inner 
surface  with  chitin,  this  explanation  seems  improbable. 
The  rectal  ampulla  is  capable  of  considerable  expansion 
and  normally  retains  the  feces  when  bees  are  confined  to 
the  hive,  as  in  winter.  It  is  supposed  that  most  of  the 
absorption  of  food  takes  place  in  the  hind-intestine.  Peter- 
sen advances  the  fantastic  theory  that  the  rectal  glands 
are  the  source  of  the  hive  odor. 

The  food  of  bees  which  must  be  acted  upon  by  the  various 
digestive  juices  to  be  prepared  for  absorption  have  their 
origin  in  the  nectar  and  pollen  collected  from  flowers.  The 
chief  food  is  honey,  which  consists  largely  of  invert  sugar. 
This  name  is  given  to  a  mixture  of  two  sugars,  levulose  and 
dextrose,  which  by  various  means  can  be  made  from  sucrose 
(cane  sugar).  In  the  higher  animals,  these  sugars  are  ca- 
pable of  absorption  without  further  change,  and  this  is  pre- 
sumably true  of  bees  also.  The  sugar  in  nectar  is  probably 
sucrose  with  some  invert  sugar.  The  preparation  of  this 
material  for  absorption  therefore  begins  with  the  ripening 
of  nectar  into  honey.  As  explained  earlier  (p.  85),  this  is 
by  the  action  of  an  enzyme  and,  according  to  Petersen, 
such  an  enz3Tiie  was  extracted  from  the  head  of  the  bee  by 
Erlenmeyer  and  by  v.  Planta,  presumably  from  the  salivary 
glands.  The  absorption  of  sugars  probably  occurs  in  the 
ventriculus  and  any  water  in  the  honey  which  is  not  needed 
is  ejected.  The  process  of  such  an  ejection  is  not  clear. 
It  is  also  stated  by  Petersen  that  the  bee  produces  a  diastatic 
ferment  by  which  the  digestion  of  starch  is  possible,  but  he 
was  never  able  to  prove  from  experiments  that  starch  is 
changed  into  dextrin,  maltose  or  dextrose  in  the  honey- 


The  Life  Processes  of  the  Individual  147 

stomach.  However,  pollen  contains  no  starch  so  that  the 
breaking  down  of  starch  plays  a  small  part  in  the  digestion 
of  the  bee. 

The  next  important  constituent  of  bee  food  is  proteid, 
derived  from  pollen.  Petersen  shows  the  presence  of  pro- 
teolytic ferments  in  the  salivary  gland  secretions  and  es- 
pecially claims  that  the  layers  of  peritrophic  membrane 
consist  largely  of  such  ferments.  He  also  makes  the  in- 
teresting observation  that  the  bee  is  incapable  of  digesting 
the  proteid  from  pollen  unless  the  grains  are  broken  before 
they  enter  the  ventriculus,  *  any  ones  remaining  unbroken 
simply  passing  out  in  the  feces.  It  would  therefore  seem 
probable  that  the  pollen  is  surrounded  in  the  ventriculus 
with  the  peritrophic  layers  containing  the  ferments  and  is 
then  passed  on  to  the  small  intestine  without  being  broken 
up  or  absorbed.  The  use  of  pollen  is  more  in  evidence 
during  brood-rearing  and  it  is  usually  assumed  that  the 
workers  predigest  this,  or  perhaps  more  correctly,  secrete 
a  mixture  rich  in  protein  for  the  use  of  the  larvae.  However, 
since  the  mid-intestine  of  the  older  larvae  contain  consider- 
able pollen,  a  large  part  of  their  proteid  digestion  is  by  their 
own  proteolytic  ferments. 

Pollen  contains  considerable  oil  but  Petersen  failed  to  find 
that  any  of  it  is  digested  by  the  bee,  at  any  rate  most  of  it 
passes  through  without  being  broken  up  or  absorbed. 

The  retention  of  feces  by  bees,  so  long  as  they  stay  in  the 
hive,  except  when  dysentery  develops,  is  of  importance 
in  their  management.  The  relation  of  this  retention  to 
the  activities  of  bees  in  winter  is  discussed  in  a  previous 
chapter  (p.  91).  Usually  during  the  active  season,  when 
feces  accumulate  most  rapidly,  there  are  frequent  opportu- 
nities for  flight  and  the  ejection  of  feces. 

For  bees  living  only  on  honey  or  perhaps  on  a  syrup  of 
cane  sugar,  digestion  is  reduced  to  a  minimum."  It  remains 
to  be  proved  whether  under  such  conditions  the  bees  are 
fully  nourished.  That  bees  can  live  over  winter  without 
pollen  is  of  course  not  proof  that  they  do  not  need  it  then. 


148  Beekeeping 

While  bees  can  convert  sucrose  (cane  sugar)  into  levulos^ 
and  dextrose  and  can  digest  maltose,  they  cannot  digest 
certain  other  sugars.  There  is  also  considerable  evidence 
that  dextrine  cannot  be  digested  and  that  the  presence  in 
the  food  of  unusual  amounts  of  dextrine  may  produce  the 
condition  known  as  dysentery.  It  has  also  been  found 
that  certain  proteids  which  have  been  used  as  substitutes 
for  pollen  cannot  be  digested.  The  alimentary  canal  of 
the  bee,  therefore,  appears  to  be  a  highly  specialized  system, 
incapable  of  any  considerable  flexibility.  Bees  would  evi- 
dently fail  to  be  nourished  by  the  mixed  diets  of  many 
other  species,  which  is  additional  argument  against  at- 
tempted homologies  with  human  digestion. 


CIRCULATION 

When  the  products  of  digestion  are  absorbed  and  traverse 
the  alimentary  canal  wall,  they  must  be  carried  to  the 
various  tissues  for  assimilation.  This  is  done  by  means 
of  the  blood.  In  the  higher  animals  blood  is  normally 
confined  in  blood  vessels  which  carry  it  throughout  the 
body,  but  in  the  bee,  as  in  other  insects*  the  blood  bathes 
the  various  organs,  filling  up  the  interstices  between  them. 
These  spaces  may,  however,  be  so  arranged  that  the  blood 
flows  in  definite  channels  or  sinuses.  The  blood  is  further 
confined  to  definite  paths  by  membranes  stretched  across 
the  dorsal  and  ventral  walls  of  the  abdomen  {DDph  and 
VDph,  Fig.  78)  which  bound  the  chief  sinuses.  These 
diaphragms  have  a  rhj^hmical  motion  and  assist  in  the 
circulation  of  the  blood.  The  heart  (Ht)  is  located  dorsal 
to  the  dorsal  diaphragm,  this  sinus  being  therefore  known 
,  as  the  pericardial  chamber.  The  heart  is  a  long  muscular 
tube  consisting  of  four  chambers  lying  in  the  third,  fourth, 
fifth  and  sixth  segments  of  the  abdomen.  In  each  of  these 
segments  is  a  valvular  opening  (ostium,  Ost)  on  each  side 
for  the  admission  of  blood  from  the  pericardial  chamber, 
and  there  are  also  segmental  valves  to  prevent  a  backward 


The  Life  Processes  of  the  Individual 


149 


flow  of  blood.  The  posterior  end  of  the  heart  is  closed 
but  on  the  anterior  end  it  is  continued  in  a  long  tube  (aorta, 
Ao)  extending  in  various  convolutions  and  arches  through 


150  Beekeeping 

the  thorax  and  opening  by  simple  branches  into  the  head 
cavity. 

The  blood  of  the  bee  is  a  colorless  liquid  containing  certain 
corpuscles,  but  no  red  ones  such  as  are  found  in  mammals. 
The  blood  is  forced  through  the  heart  and  aorta  to  the  head 
cavity.  It  then  flows  backward  through  the  sinuses  of  the 
thorax  into  the  ventral  sinus  of  the  abdomen.  Pumped 
backward  by  the  pulsation  of  the  ventral  diaphragm,  it 
flows  through  various  definite  cavities  between  visceral 
organs  in  the  abdomen  and  into  the  pericardial  cavity, 
from  which  it  again  enters  the  heart  through  the  ostia.  In 
its  passage  through  the  sinuses  about  the  viscera,  the  blood 
takes  up  the  food  which  has  passed  through  the  walls  of 
the  alimentary  canal.  This  nourishment  is  promptly 
carried  to  all  parts  of  the  body  by  the  circulation. 

METABOLISM 

It  is  not  proposed  at  this  time  to  enter  into  a  long  dis- 
cussion of  the  ways  by  which  each  organ  is  rebuilt  as  needed. 
In  the  general  discussion  of  the  cells  which  make  up  the 
various  organs  (p.  94),  it  was  stated  that  each  cell  is  ca- 
pable of  taking  up  nourishment  and  of  building  this  into 
protoplasm.  It  also  utilizes  oxygen  furnished  by  the  res- 
piratory processes.  To  this  process  the  name  anabolism 
is  given.  Not  all  cells  require  the  same  constituents  of  the 
food  presented  or  the  same  amount  of  oxygen,  but  by  some 
mysterious  process  each  cell  is  enabled  to  choose  those  parts 
which  it  needs.  Similarly,  as  the  activities  of  the  cells 
progress,  protoplasm  is  broken  down  and  waste  products 
are  formed  :  this  we  know  as  katabolism.  The  final  products 
of  katabolism  are  carbon  dioxid  and  water,  together  with 
various  more  complex  chemical  compounds  usually  con- 
taining nitrogen,  such  as  uric  acid  and  urea.  The  elimina- 
tion of  the  more  complex  waste  products  is  discussed  under 
excretion. 


The  Life  Processes  of  the  Individual  151 


RESPIRATION 

That  an  animal  may  live,  it  must  have  oxygen.  The 
oxygen  taken  into  the  body  in  respiration  does  not  go  to 
form  protoplasm  in  the  various  cells  but  it  is  used  to  com- 
bine with  the  products  of  kataboUsm  to  make  simpler  com- 
pounds which  can  be  eliminated  from  the  body.  These 
products  of  the  breaking  down  of  the  Uving  substance  are 
of  such  a  character  that  they  poison  the  cells  unless  they 
are  promptly  removed.  The  process  is  like  ordinary  com- 
bustion in  that  these  products  combine  with  oxygen  to 
form  carbon  dioxid  and  water  and  to  generate  heat. 

In  man,  the  oxygen  is  taken  into  the  lungs  and  the  blood 
is  pumped  there  to  meet  the  oxygen.  But  the  bee  does  not 
have  a  closed  circulation  which  will  effectually  carry  the 
blood  to  the  oxygen.  Furthermore,  the  higher  animals 
have  in  their  red  blood  corpuscles  a  substance,  ha3moglobin, 
which  is  capable  of  absorbing  abundant  oxygen,  but  this  is 
lacking  in  the  colorless  blood  of  insects.  In  the  bee,  instead 
of  the  blood  being  carried  to  the  oxygen,  the  oxygen  is 
carried  to  the  blood  by  means  of  tracheal  sacs  and  a  multi- 
tude of  tracheal  branches  which  go  to  every  organ  and  to 
every  part  of  the  bee's  body.  These  tracheae  receive  their 
air  supply  through  openings  in  the  outer  wall,  the  spiracles, 
two  pairs  on  the  sides  of  the  thorax  and  eight  pairs  on  the 
abdomen.  The  tracheae  are  composed  of  a  deUcate  epi- 
thelium lined  with  a  thin  layer  of  chitin.  To  prevent  the 
collapse  of  the  tracheal  trunks,  some  of  them  are  further 
strengthened  with  spirally  placed  rings  of  chitin,  which 
are  thickenings  of  the  chitin  lining.  The  finer  branches 
lack  these  chitin  rings  and  there  are  few  heavy  trunks  in 
the  bee,  the  walls  usually  being  delicate. 

The  oxygen  is  therefore  carried  to  all  parts  of  the  bee's 
body,  passes  through  the  walls  of  the  tracheal  system,  is 
absorbed  by  the  blood  and  is  carried  to  every  cell.  The 
products  of  kataboHsm  are  in  turn  carried  by  the  blood, 
and  the  water  vapor  (at  least  most  of  it)  and  the  carbon 


152 


Beekeeping 


dioxid  enter  the  tracheal  branches  and  are  expelled  through 
the  spiracles.  The  more  complex  compounds  are  eliminated 
in  the  process  of  excretion. 

The  tracheal  system  of  the  bee  is  shown  sufficiently  in 

the  accompanying  il- 
lustration (Fig.  79)  so 
that  a  detailed  de- 
scription is  unneces- 
sary. The  abdomen 
contains  .  the  unusu- 
ally large  tracheal 
sacs  (TraSc)  connected 
with  each  other  by 
ventral  commissures 
(TraCom).  They  are 
also  connected  with 
tracheal  sacs  of  the 
thorax.  From  the 
most  anterior  spiracles 
of  the  thorax  are 
heavy  trunks  to  the 
air  sacs  of  the  head, 
above  the  brain.  The 
tracheal  system  of  the 
bee  is  more  elaborate 
than  that  of  most 
other  insects  and  prob- 
ably in  no  other 
species  is  there  more 
free  access  of  oxygen 
to  all  parts  of  the 
body. 

The  pumping  of  the 
air  through  the  body  is  accomplished  by  the  respiratory 
movements  of  the  abdomen,  consisting  of  a  lengthening 
and  shortening  of  the  abdomen  and  a  slight  dorso-ventral 
movement.     The  muscles  of  the  abdomen  which  function 


Fig.  79.  —  Tracheal  system   of   worker  with 
dorsal  sacs  and  trunks  removed,  from  above. 


The  Life  Processes  of  the  Individual  153 

in  respiration  have  been  described  by  Carlet/  who  dis- 
tinguishes seven  sets.  It  is  stated  by  Djathchenko^  that  in 
expiration  the  spiracles  are  momentarily  closed,  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  muscles  thus  forcing  air  to  the  minute  branches. 
The  spiracles  are  then  opened  and  the  air  is  expelled. 

EXCRETION 

The  products  of  the  breaking  down  of  protoplasm  consist, 
as  previously  stated,  of  carbon  dioxid,  water  and  various 
compounds  containing  nitrogen.  Since  the  adult  honeybee 
can  live  for  long  periods  (especially  in  winter)  on  pure  sugar, 
excretion  must  at  times  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Sugar 
breaks  down  into  carbon  dioxid  and  water,  both  of  which 
may  pass  off  as  gases  through  the  tracheal  system.  It  is 
only  the  other  components  of  honey  and  the  pollen  which 
ultimately  go  to  form  nitrogenous  compounds.  The  carbon 
dioxid  is  all  expelled  through  the  tracheae  and  probably 
most  of  the  water  escapes  as  vapor  by  this  course,  although 
some  may  be  ejected  with  the  nitrogenous  compounds. 
The  excretory  organs  are  the  Malpighian  tubules  (Fig.  60, 
Mai),  about  100  in  number  in  the  bee,  which  open  into  the 
alimentary  canal  at  the  junction  of  the  ventriculus  and  the 
intestine.  They  are  long  delicate  tubes  which  coil  about 
the  other  viscera.  These  tubules  are  only  one  cell  in  thick- 
ness and  the  ends  of  these  cells  {Epth,  Fig.  77,  C)  often 
bulge  into  the  cavity  of  the  tubule.  The  junction  of  the 
Malpighian  tubules  with  the  intestine  is  shown  in  Fig.  77,  G. 
Minute  crystals  of  urates  have  been  found  in  the  Malpighian 
tubules.  The  excreted  products  empty  into  the  intestine 
and  are  expelled  in  the  feces. 

In  the  fat  body  (located  in  the  body  cavity)  are  found 
certain   large    cells   of   rather   mysterious   function,    called 

1  Carlet,  G.,  1884.  Sur  les  muscles  de  rabdomen  de  I'abeille.  Comptes 
rendues  de  I'Acad.  des  Sci.  de  Paris,  XCVIII,  pp.  758-759. 

2  Djathchenko,  Sophie,  1906.  Zur  Frage  der  Athumsorgane  der  Biene 
Ann.  de  I'Inst.  agron.  de  Moscou,  XII,  pp.  1-14. 


154  Beekeeping 

cenocytes.  Koschevnikov  ^  states  that  the  oenocytes  of 
the  young  adult  bee  have  a  uniform,  shghtly  pigmented 
protoplasm,  while  in  old  bees  yellow  granules  begin  to  ap- 
pear in  these  cells.  After  the  winter  confinement,  these 
granules  are  numerous  and  in  old  queens  they  are  especially 
abundant.  According  to  the  view  of  this  author,  oenocytes 
are  excreting  cells  which  take  up  waste  products  of  katabo- 
lism  and,  after  modifying  them,  deliver  them  again  to  the 
blood  to  be  carried  to  the  Malpighian  tubules.  The  changes 
of  age  may  be  interpreted  as  due  to  an  accumulation  of  these 
products  in  cells  which  are  no  longer  able  to  discharge  them. 
This  failure  of  the  cenocytes  should  be  investigated  from 
the  point  of  view  of  the  term  of  life  of  the  bee.  In  some  of 
the  primitive  insects  the  fat  body  is  supposed  to  function 
as  a  permanent  storage  for  urates. 

LOCOMOTION 

Bees  are  able  to  go  from  place  to  place  by  means  of  two 
systems  of  locomotor  organs,  the  wings  and  the  legs.  Both 
of  these  are  attached  to  the  thorax  and  the  muscles  of  flight 
are  so  well  developed  that  they  occupy  almost  the  entire 
space  in  the  thorax. 

The  wings  (Fig.  80)  are  membranous  structures  with  a 
definite  framework  of  veins  attached  to  the  sides  of  the 
thorax.  As  previously  explained  (p.  99)  they  are  not 
primary  embryonic  appendages,  but  are  secondary  out- 
growths from  the  second  and  third  thoracic  segments.  The 
details  of  the  venation  of  the  wings  need  not  be  considered 
at  length.  This  has  been  investigated  in  a  careful  manner 
by  Comstock  and  Needham  ^  and  the  designations  used  in 
Fig.  80  are  those  decided  upon  by  these  authors  after  a 
study  of  the  comparative  venation  of  the  various  orders  of 
insects.     The  symbols  are  explained  in  the  appendix.     The 

1  Koschevnikov,  G.  A.,  1900.  Ueber  den  Fettkorper  und  die  CEnocyten 
der  Honigbiene  {Apis  mellifera  L.).     Zool.  Anz.,  XXIII,  pp.  337-353. 

*  Comstock,  J.  H.,  and  Needham,  J.  G.,  1898-99.  The  wings  of  insects. 
Am.  Nat.,  XXXII  and  XXXIII :   Reprinted,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 


The  Life  Processes  of  the  Individual 


155 


attachment  of  the  bee's  wings  to  the  thorax  has  been  in- 
vestigated by  Snodgrass  {I.e.  pp.  61-63). 

The  motion  of  the  wings  in  flight  is  in  four  directions,  up, 
down,  forward  and  backward,  and  the  combination  of  thes3 
movements  causes  the  wing  tips  to  describe  the  course  of  a 
figure  8,  if  the  insect  is  held  stationary.  In  flight,  the  8 
is  of  course  modified.  The  hind  wings  are  small  and  are 
attached  by  hooks  on  their  anterior  margins  to  thickenings 
on  the  margin  of  the  front  wings.  They  are  not  provided 
with  large  flight  muscles  of  their  own  but  are  carried  along 
by  the  action  of  the  powerful  muscles  in  the  mesothorax 
which  propel  the  fore 
wings.  '^    '<-       ^^^ 

The  muscles  of  flight 
are  in  four  sets,  cor- 
responding to  the  four 
directions  of  wing  move- 
ment. The  chief  muscles 
are  not  attached  directly 
to  the  bases  of  the  wings, 
as  in  dragonflies,  but  the 
wings    are    moved    into 

the  right  position  by  muscles  situated  inside  the  pleura  of 
the  two  thoracic  segments.  After  the  wings  are  in  position 
for  flight,  the  compression  of  the  thorax  by  the  vertical 
muscles  lowers  the  dorsum  and  raises  the  wing  while  the 
contraction  of  the  longitudinal  muscles  raises  the  dorsum 
and  lowers  the  wing.  The  vertical  muscles  are  therefore 
the  elevators  and  the  longitudinal  muscles  the  [depressors. 
The  movements  of  the  wings  during  flight  is  therefore 
produced  mainly  by  changes  in  the  shape  of  the  thorax. 
The  forward  and  backward  movements  are  accompUshed 
by  the  action  of  the  muscles  on  the  pleurum,  acting  directly 
on  the  bases  of  the  wings. 

Because  of  the  enormous  development  of  the  two  main 
sets  of  flight  muscles,  bees  are  capable  of  strong  and  rapid 
flight.     They  are  also  capable  of  arresting  progress  suddenly 


Fig.  80.  —  Fore  and  hind  wings. 


Fig.  81.  —  A,  left  front  leg  of  worker,  anterior  view ;  B,  spine  of  antenna 
cleaner ;  C,  details  of  antenna  cleaner ;  D,  left  middle  leg  of  worker, 
anterior  view ;  E,  left  hind  leg  of  queen,  anterior  view ;  F,  left  hind  leg 
of  worker,  anterior  view ;  G,  inner  view  of  left  hind  leg  of  worker,  show- 
ing pollen-combs ;  H,  left  hind  leg  of  drone,  anterior  view. 

156 


The  Life  Processes  of  the  Individual  157 


or  of  getting  under  way  rapidly.  There  is  no  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  flight  is  in  any  way  dependent  upon  the  amount 
of  air  in  the  tracheae,  as  has  been  claimed,  for  filling  the 
air  sacs  obviously  does  not  reduce  the  weight  of  the  bee. 
The  maximum  rate  of  flight  is  not  clearly  established,  for 
the  currents  of  air  must  be  eliminated  in  making  such  de- 
terminations;  the  rapidity  of  movement  depends  largely 
upon  the  load  being  carried.  Bees  are  able  to  fly  at  a  con- 
siderable angle  for  some 
distance  as  is  seen  in 
apiaries  in  mountainous 
districts.  The  power  of 
the  wing  muscles  is  shown 
by  the  ability  of  a 
worker  to  fly  from  the 
hive  carrying  a  drone, 
which  weighs  more  than 
the  worker  itself. 

In  walking,  bees  use 
all  six  legs  (Fig.  81).  In 
addition  to  their  function 
in  locomotion,  the  legs 
constitute  a  rather  com- 
plex set  of  tools  for  nu- 
merous other  purposes, 
especially  complex  in  the 
worker.  On  the  front  legs  at  the  articulation  of  the  tibia 
and  first  tarsal  joint  are  the  antennae  cleaners.  The 
middle  leg  has  a  spur  to  which  has  been  attributed  the 
function  of  prying  pollen  from  the  hind  legs  in  storing  it. 
The  hind  legs  of  the  worker  bees  are  highly  speciahzed, 
carrying  pollen  baskets  or  corbicula  on  the  outer  side  of 
the  flattened  tibiae  and  rows  of  spines  on  the  inner  side  of 
the  first  tarsal  joint.  Between  these  two  joints  are  the  so- 
called  wax-shears,  which  in  fact  have  nothing  to  do  with 
the  wax,  but  function  in  pollen  gathering  (p.  123).  Each 
leg  is  provided  with  a  pollen  brush  for  collecting  pollen. 


Fig.  82.  — Dorsal  (A),  ventral  (B)  and 
lateral  (C)  views  of  last  tarsal  joint 
of  first  foot  of  worker. 


158  Beekeeping 

The  muscles  for  moving  the  legs  are  located  inside  the 
joints  and  are  inserted  on  the  chitinous  walls. 

The  last  tarsal  joint  on  each  leg  carries  a  pair  of  bilobed 
claws  (Fig.  82,  Cla),  which  differ  among  the  three  types  of 
bees.  Those  of  the  drone  are  bent  more  nearly  at  right, 
angles  than  those  in  the  workers  and  queens  and  those  of 
the  queen  are  larger  than  the  claws  of  the  workers.  Between 
the  claws  is  a  lobe  (empodium,  Em'p)  used  when  the  bee 
walks  on  a  smooth  surface.  On  such  a  surface  the  claws 
are  useless  and  the  sticky  empodium  is  lowered  and  flat- 
tened, providing  a  good  foothold. 

The  motion  of  the  legs  in  walking  is  typical  of  all  insects. 
The  legs  move  in  two  sets;  the  fore  and  hind  legs  on  one 
side  move  in  the  same  direction  as  the  middle  leg  on  the 
opposite  side,  thus  giving  a  triangle  for  support  at  all  times. 
In  flight  the  legs  hang  freely  and  are  forced  somewhat 
backward,  except  when  they  are  being  used  as  in  the  manipu- 
lation of  pollen  (p.  123). 


PROTECTIVE   APPARATUS 

Worker  bees  defend  the  colony  by  means  of  the  sting, 
situated  usually  in  a  cavity  at  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  (Fig. 

76)  but  capable  of  marvelously  rapid  action  when  it  is 
protruded.  As  was  stated  earlier  (p.  140),  this  sting  cavity 
is  formed  by  the  infolding  of  the  eighth,  ninth  and  tenth 
segments  of  the  abdomen.  The  sting  is  homologous  with 
the  ovipositor  of  other  insects  (see  Snodgrass,  I.e.  pp.  76- 

77)  and  is  made  up  of  parts  considered  by  some  embry- 
ologists  as  comparable  with  the  legs  and  mouth  parts  of 
the  more  anterior  segments  of  the  bee.  The  sting  of  the 
worker  bee  is  straight  while  that  of  the  queen  is  longer, 
curved  and  less  strongly  barbed. 

The  sting  (Fig.  83)  and  its  accessory  apparatus  form  a 
rather  complex  structure.  The  shaft  consists  of  three  parts, 
a  dorsal  sheath  {ShS)  along  which  move  two  barbed  lancets 
{Let).    The  sheath  is  enlarged  at  the  anterior  end  into  a 


The  Life  Processes  of  the  Individual 


159 


bulb  (ShB)  and  is  further  continued  in  two  arms  (ShA) 
which  curve  outward.  The  lancets  slide  on  a  grooved 
track  the  full  length  of  the  sheath,  past  the  bulb  and  diverge 
along  the  two  basal  arms.  The  sheath  and  lancets  combine 
to  form  a  hollow  tube  (PsnC)  through  which  the  poison 
flows. 

The  arms  of  the  sheath  are  attached  at  their  anterior 
ends  to  oblong  plates  (06)  which  overlap  the  sides  of  the 
sting.  To  these  plates 
are  attached  palpi 
(StnPlp),  soft  white  pro- 
jections provided  with 
sense  organs,  by  means 
of  which  the  bee  can 
tell  when  she  is  in  con- 
tact with  the  object 
which  is  to  be  stung. 
The  lancets  are  attached 
to  triangular  plates  (Tri) 
which  in  turn  articulate 
with  the  quadrate  plates 
(Qd).  By  the  move- 
ments of  these  plates  on 
each  other  the  lancets 
are  slid  along  the  sheath 
when  the  sting  is  used. 
It   has   been  shown   by 

Zander  ^  that  the  triangular  plate  (Tri)  is  part  of  the 
eighth  sternum,  the  quadrate  plate  (Qd)  is  part  of  the 
ninth  tergum  and  the  oblong  plate  (Ob)  is  the  ninth 
sternum. 

''In  the  accessory  plates  of  the  bee's  sting  we  have  a 
most  excellent  illustration  of  how  parts  of  a  segment  may 
become  modified  to  meet  the  requirements  of  a  special 
function,  and  also  an  example  of  how  nature  is  ever  reluctant 

1  Zander,  Enoch,  1899.  Beitrage  zur  Morphologie  des  Stachelapparates 
der  Hymenopteren.     Zeit.  f.  wiss.  Zool.,  LXVI,  pp.  288-333. 


Fig.  83.  —  Ventral  view  of  sting  of  worker 
and  accessory  parts,  flattened  out. 


160  Beekeeping 

to  create  any  new  organ,  preferring  rather  to  make  over  some 
already  existing  structure  into  something  that  will  serve  a 
new  purpose."  —  Snodgrass,  I.e.  p.  78. 

The  poison  of  the  sting  arises  from  two  sets  of  glands. 
The  conspicuous  poison  sac  (PsnSc)  which  opens  into  the 
bulb  of  the  sting  is  usually  seen  attached  to  the  sting  when 
the  sting  is  pulled  from  a  bee.  The  contents  of  this  gland 
have  an  acid  reaction  and  it  was  formerly  believed  to  be 
formic  acid.  This  acid  comes  from  two  long  coiled  tubes 
(AGID)  on  which  are  two  small  enlargements,  supposed 
to  be  the  secreting  glands  (AGl).  The  tubes  (AGID)  also 
probably  have  gland  cells  in  the  walls.  The  other  poison 
glands  {BGl),  known  as  the  alkaline  glands,  also  empty  into 
the  bulb  of  the  sting.  Their  secretion  is  supposed  to  have 
an  alkaUne  reaction.  According  to  Carlet,^  the  secretions 
of  these  two  sets  of  glands  must  be  mixed  to  be  fully  effec- 
tive. The  secretions  enter  the  bulb  where  they  are  mixed 
and  are  then  forced  down  the  canal  (PsnC)  formed  by  the 
sheath  and  lancets. 

In  most  books  on  bees,  certain  lateral  openings  in  the 
lancets  are  described  as  paths  of  the  poison  in  the  process 
of  stinging.  Snodgrass  showed,  however,  that  these  do  not 
connect  with  the  poison  canal  and  supposed  them  to  be  ducts 
of  some  kind  of  subcuticular  glands.  Mclndoo  has  shown 
them  to  be  olfactory  pores  (p.  170). 

The  sting,  as  every  beekeeper  knows,  is  an  effective 
weapon  of  defense.  When  used,  it  usually  cannot  be  with- 
drawn because  of  the  barbs  (Brh)  on  the  lancets.  The 
sting  with  the  accessory  plates  and  poison  sac  are  therefore 
usually  torn  from  the  body  of  the  bee,  causing  so  severe 
an  injury  to  the  abdomen  that  the  worker  dies  within  a 
short  time.  The  defender  is  thus  sacrificed  for  the  good 
of  the  colony.  The  parts  torn  away  include  the  muscles 
which  operate  the  accessory  plates  and  indirectly  slide  the 
lancets  on  the  sheath.     The  sting  may  therefore  be  driven 

1  Carlet,  G.,  1890.  Memoir  sur  le  venin  et  I'aiguillon  de  Tabeille. 
Ann.  des  sci.  nat.,  Zool.,  7  ser.,  IX,  pp.  1-17. 


The  Life  Processes  of  the  Individual  161 

farther  and  farther  into  the  wound  if  not  promptly  re- 
moved and  the  same  reflex  actions  of  the  muscles  serve  to 
force  more  poison  from  the  poison  sac.  In  removing  the 
sting,  care  should  be  exercised  not  to  squeeze  the  poison 
sac  thus  emptying  its  contents  into  the  wound. 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND   THE  SENSES 

In  order  that  bees  may  respond  to  factors  in  the  environ- 
ment, obviously  these  influences  must  be  perceived.  The 
organs  which  receive  the  stimuh  from  without  are  the  special 
organs  of  sense.  The  resulting  nervous  impulses  are  then 
transmitted  through  the  nervous  system,  by  means  of  which 
also  the  actions  of  the  animal  are  coordinated  and  molded 
in  response  to  the  stimuli  received.  The  nervous  system 
and  its  various  organs  of  special  sense  are  therefore  of  the 
highest  importance  to  the  animal  and  the  influence  of  the 
stimuli  of  the  environment  are  so  important  in  the  behavior 
of  these  insects  as  to  justify  a  separate  chapter. 

Nowhere  in  the  entire  discussion  of  bee  activities  is  it 
more  necessary  to  avoid  comparisons  with  our  own  actions 
than  here.  Man  is  capable  of  conscious  and  volitional 
acts  while  evidence  of  such  acts  in  bees  is  lacking.  Further- 
more, the  structure  of  the  nervous  system  and  of  the  sense 
organs  is  so  unlike  analogous  structures  in  man  that  at- 
tempts at  homologies  are  entirely  unwarranted. 

NERVOUS   SYSTEM 

This  system  of  organs  consists  of  a  series  of  nerve  masses 
called  ganglia  (Fig.  84,  Gng)  situated  on  the  mid-ventral 
line  of  the  body,  the  ganglia  being  connected  by  a  pair  of 
longitudinal  cords,  called  connectives.  The  nerve  cells  are 
located  in  the  ganglia  while  the  delicate  processes  from 
these  nerve  cells,  the  nerve  fibers,  form  the  connectives 
and  also  go  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  some  serving  to  trans- 

162 


The  Nervous  System  and  the  Senses 


163 


mit  stimuli  from  the  sense  organs  and  some  to  carry  stimuli 
from  the  nervous  system  to  the  various  organs  of  the  body. 
The  nerve  fibers  there- 
fore are  often  compared 
with  wires  used  in  con- 
ducting electric  energy 
from  place  to  place. 

In  an  hypothetical 
generalized  insect  em- 
bryo we  should  doubt- 
less find  a  ganglion  for 
each  segment  of  the 
body,  probably  twenty 
in  all,  but  the  ganglia 
of  the  bee  larva  are 
modified  from  the  primi- 
tive condition  and  in 
the  adult  still  further 
specialization  is  ob- 
served, by  the  fusion 
of  various    ganglia. 

The  brain  (Fig.  85), 
situated  above  the  oesoph- 
agus, consists  of  three 
consecutive  ganglia,  rec- 
ognizable in  the  embryo, 
but  completely  fused  and 
not  readily  recognizable 
in  the  adult.  From  the 
brain,  two  short  connec- 
tives (circum-oesopha- 
geal)  pass  one  on  either  side  of  the  oesophagus  to  the 
subcesophageal  gangUon  (SceGng)  also  located  in  the 
head.  Continuous  with  the  brain  are  the  optic  lobes  (Opl) 
forming  the  nervous  connection  with  the  large  compound 
eyes  (E),  and  from  the  brain  are  nerves  to  the  antennae 
(AntNv)   and  also  to  the  frontal  ganglion   (FtGng),  from 


Fig.    84. 


Nervous    system    of    worker, 
dorsal  view. 


164 


Beekeeping 


which  the  stomatogastric  system  (sympathetic  system) 
has  its  origin  {StgNv),  The  suboesophageal  ganghon  gives 
off  nerve  branches  to  the  mandibles  (MdNv),  maxillae  {MxNv) 
and  labium  (LbNv),  For  a  study  of  the  minute  structure  of 
the  brain  and  the  paths  of  the  various  nervous  elements,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  works  of  Kenyon  ^  and  Jonescu.^ 


^FtCom. 

SoeGng''       '^         All  I    '    H-A         ^  ^^StgNv 

-LbNv 


Fig.  85.  —  Brain  and  suboesophageal  ganglion  of  worker,  anterior  view. 

In  the  thorax  the  number  of  ganglia  is  reduced  to  two 
(Figs.  78  and  84,  iGng  and  2Gng).  The  first  innervates  the 
first  pair  of  legs  while  the  second  is  a  combination  of  four 
ganglia,  as  shown  by  the  fact  that  it  innervates  the  meso- 


1  Kenyon,  F.  C,  1896.  The  brain  of  the  bee.  Jr.  comp.  neuroL,  VI, 
pp.  133-210. 

,  1897.     The  optic  lobes  of  the  bee's  brain  in  the  light  of  recent 

neurological  methods.     Am.  nat.,  XXXI,  pp.  369-376. 

2  Jonescu,  C.  N.,  1909.  Vergleichende  Untersuchungen  iiber  das 
Gehirn  der  Honigbiene.  Jenaischen  Zeit.  f.  Naturwiss.,  XLV,  N.  F., 
XXXVIII. 


The  Nervous  System  and  the  Senses  165 

and  metathoracic  segments  (with  the  corresponding  two 
pairs  of  legs  and  wings)  and  the  first  abdominal  segment, 
which  is  fused  with  the  thorax  in  the  bee,  as  well  as  the  first 
segment  of  the  abdomen  behind  the  constriction.  It  should 
be  noted  that  nerves  {W2Nv  and  WSNv)  run  to  the  bases  of 
the  wings  to  innervate  sense  organs  (p.  170). 

In  the  abdomen  are  five  ganglia  (S-7Gng)  which  send  nerve 
branches  to  the  remaining  abdominal  segments.  The  third 
and  fourth  ganglia  lie  one  segment  in  front  of  the  segments 
which  they  innervate  while  the  remaining  ones  are  in  their 
own  segments,  the  last  (7Gng)  supplying  the  remaining 
posterior  segments  of  the  abdomen,  it  therefore  being  ac- 
tually a  fusion  of  four  ganglia. 

The  action  of  the  nervous  elements  remains  a  matter 
chiefly  of  conjecture.  These  cells  have  lost  their  contractility 
and  probably  never  regenerate  nor  divide  in  the  adult  bee. 
Their  function  is  obviously  important,  for  if  this  system  is 
injured  the  coordination  of  the  body  is  destroyed.  However, 
the  cutting  of  the  nerve  cord  does  not  cause  death  and  even 
if  the  thorax  and  abdomen  are  entirely  separated  the  parts 
may  function  independently.  If  the  head  is  removed,  the 
animal  can  still  walk  and  if  the  abdomen  is  removed  it  can 
still  take  in  food.  These  facts  indicate  that  the  nervous 
control  of  the  body  is  not  centralized  in  the  brain  as  com- 
pletely as  in  man  and  in  many  other  animals.  Proper 
correlation  of  movement  cannot,  however,  take  place  unless 
the  nervous  connections  are  intact. 


SENSE   ORGANS 

So  little  is  known  of  the  structure  and  function  of  the  sense 
organs  of  bees  that  this  subject  must  be  discussed  with 
caution.  We  know  that  the  simple  and  compound  eyes 
are  the  organs  of  sight  and  recently  it  has  been  found  where 
the  organs  of  smell  are  located.  Beyond  this  is  a  vast  field 
for  investigation  and  a  fertile  field  for  speculation. 


166 


Beekeeping 


Sight. 

The  organs  which  receive  hght  stimuh  are  the  three  simple 
eyes  or  ocelli  (0)  and  the  two  large  compound  eyes  (E),  all 
situated  on  the  head.     The  compound  eyes  are  located  on 


r^'innerch., 


Fig.    86.  —  Section   of  compound    eye  and  optic  lobe  of  worker;    Om, 

ommatidia. 


the  sides  of  the  head,  each  eye  consisting  of  many  units.  In 
drones,  the  number  of  these  units  is  larger  than  in  the  two 
types  of  females  and  the  compound  eyes  are  so  enlarged  as  to 
meet  on  the  vertex  of  the  head.  The  structure  of  the  units 
of  the  compound  eye  was  described  some  years  ago.^     On 

1  Phillips,  E.  F.,  1905.     Structure  and  development  of  the  compound 
eye  of  the  honey  bee.     Proc.  acad.  nat.  sci.  Phila.,  LVII,  pp.  123-157. 


The  Nervous  System  and  the  Senses 


167 


CL 


CC 

o.-p.c. 
c.-p.c. 

rhb. 
ret 


the  outer   surface,  these   units  (ommatidia)  are   indicated 
by  hexagonal  facets  in  the  chitinous  covering  of  the  eye.     If 

a  section  is  cut  through  the  entire  eye  of  

a  worker  bee  (including  the  optic  lobes), 
the  structure  is  that  shown  in  Fig.  86. 
Numerous  ommatidia  are  shown  in  full 
length  and  beneath  these  are  the  optic 
lobes,  which  need  not  be  described  here. 
An  examination  of  a  single  ommatidium 
(Fig.  87)  shows  the  following  details  of 
structure :  (1)  an  outer  corneal  lens  of 
chitin  (CL)  continuous  with  the  chitin 
of  the  head,  (2)  the  crystalline  cone  (CC) 
and  (3)  the  rhabdome  (rhb)  surrounded  by 
eight  or  nine  sense  cells  or  retinulse  (ret). 
Surrounding  the  ommatidia  are  two  types 
of  pigment  cells,  (1)  the  corneal  pigment 
cells  (c.-p.c),  which  in  the  pupal  stage 
secreted  the  chitin  of  the  corneal  lens, 
and  (2)  the  outer  pigment  cells  (o.-p.c). 
So  far  as  can  be  determined,  the  functions 
of  these  parts  are  as  follows :  rays  of  light 
pass  through  the  lens  and  crystalline  cone 
cells  and  enter  the  transparent  rhabdome 
where  the  stimulus  is  received.  Any  rays 
of  light  which  enter  obliquely  or  which 
strike  the  edge  of  the  crystalline  cone  are 
absorbed  by  the  surrounding  pigment  cells 
so  that  it  seems  probable  that  only  those 
rays  which  strike  the  surface  of  the  eye 
at  a  right  angle  ever  reach  the  sense  cells. 
There  is  no  apparatus  for  changing  the 
focus  of  the  lens. 

The  type  of  image  formed  by  the  com- 
pound eye  has  been  the  subject  of  con- 
siderable speculation.  The  two  theories 
on  this  subject  are  (1)  that  each  facet  forms  a  separate 


:  -retn. 


a-p.c 


Nv  I 


-BM 


Fig.  87.  —  Section 
of  entire  omma- 
tidium. 


168  Beekeeping 

image  ^  and  (2)  that  the  impressions  of  the  individual  facets 
form  a  mosaic  image.^  The  latter  theory  has  most  to  sup- 
port it  and  is  generally  accepted.  Forel  ^  gives  an  admir- 
able discussion  of  these  theories  and  adds  considerable  evi- 
dence to  support  the  latter  theory. 

As  was  stated  earlier,  it  is  probable  that  only  the  rays  of 
light  which  strike  the  lens  perpendicularly  can  reach  the 
sensory  cells.  The  image  is  probably  not  a  distinct  one. 
If  an  object  in  motion  is  within  the  range  of  vision  of  the  bee, 
the  image  is  transferred  rapidly  from  one  set  of  ommatidia 
to  another,  which  probably  accounts  for  the  fact  that  bees 
perceive  objects  in  motion  more  readily  than  they  do  still 
ones. 

In  addition  to  the  compound  eyes,  there  are  three  simple 
eyes  or  ocelli  (0),  which  Grenacher^  states  are  derived  from 
the  same  primitive  organ  as  the  individual  ommatidia  of 
the  compound  eyes ;  in  fact,  as  shown  by  him  and  by  Forel, 
compound  eyes  in  some  species  are  replaced  by  ocelli. 

The  parts  played  by  the  ocelh  and  by  the  compound 
eyes  in  the  vision  of  the  bee  are  not  clear.  From  a  study  of 
the  angles  of  refraction,  it  has  been  inferred  that  the  ocelli 
are  for  perceiving  near-by  objects,  while  the  compound  eyes 
are  far-sighted.  However,  just  the  reverse  has  been  claimed, 
and  we  have  no  reliable  data  on  this  subject. 

It  has  beeh  shown  by  numerous  experiments  and  by  the 
experience  of  beekeepers  that  bees  perceive  differences  in 

1  Gottsche,  C.  M.,  1852.  Beitrag  zur  Anatomie  u.  Physiologie  des 
Auges  der  Fliegen  u.  s.  w.     Muller's  Archiv.  f.  Anat. 

2  Exner,  Sigmund,  1875.  Ueber  das  Sehen  von  Bewegungen  und  die 
Theorie  des  zusammengesetzten  Auges.  Sitzb.  des  K,  Akad.  der  Wissensch., 
LXXII,  Abth.  III. 

This  theory  goes  back  to  the  work  of  J.  Miiller,  1826.  Zur  vergleichenden 
Physiologie  des  Gesichtsinnes.     Leipzig. 

3  Forel,  Auguste,  1908.  The  senses  of  insects.  Eng.  trans,  by  Yearsley. 
London  :    Methuen  and  Co. 

<  Grenacher,  H.,  1874.  Zur  Morphologie  und  Physiologie  des  facet- 
tirten  Arthropodenauges.  Nachrichten  v.  d.  K.  Gesellsch.  d.  Wissensch.  a. 
d.  G.  A.  Univ.  zu  Gottingen,  pp.  645-656. 

,  1877.  Untersuchungen  iiber  das  Arthropoden-Auge.     Beilageheft 

zu  d.  klinischen  Monatsblattern  f.  Augenheilkunde,  XV.  Rostock. 


The  Nervous  System  and  the  Senses  169 

color.  It  is  asserted  that  ants  do  not  perceive  red  light 
and  the  same  statement  is  made  concerning  bees,  but 
this  is  incorrect  for  bees.  It  is  also  sometimes  said  that  in- 
sects perceive  some  of  the  ultraviolet  rays,  beyond  the  range 
of  human  vision.  The  color  preferences  of  bees  have  also 
been  observed,  it  often  being  stated  that  they  prefer  blue. 
It  seems  certain  that  bees  do  not  see  objects  distinctly 
and  their  vision  is  clearly  far  less  acute  than  that  of  wasps 
and  some  other  insects.  Perhaps  they  do  not  perceive  the 
form  of  objects  at  all.  The  relative  intensity  of  light  is 
probably  an  important  part  of  their  vision.  When  it  is  re- 
called that  the  hairs  (p.  104)  cover  many  facets  of  the  com- 
pound eye,  especially  in  younger  bees,  and  that  the  structure 
of  the  eyes  does  not  suggest  a  high  degree  of  efficiency  in 
vision,  it  becomes  a  matter  of  wonder  that  bees  are  helped 
by  vision  as  much  as  appears  to  be  the  case. 

Smell. 

It  is  commonly  believed  that  bees  possess  an  acute  sense 
of  smell,  and  this  belief  is  borne  out  by  experiments  on  this 
subject.  With  the  exception  of  qualifying  statements  by 
Lubbock  ^  and  Forel,  this  is  usually  conceded.  The  location 
of  the  olfactory  organs  is  a  matter  of  much  less  unanimity 
of  opinion.  Mclndoo  ^  has  recently  performed  a  valuable 
service  in  gathering  together  the  literature  on  the  olfactory 
organs  in  insects  and  it  is  necessary  only  to  give  a  list  of  the 
organs  which  are  supposed  to  carry  the  olfactory  organs  to 
show  the  confusion  which  has  existed.  These  sense  organs 
have  been  located  by  various  authors  on  the  following  struc- 
tures :  (1)  the  spiracles,  (2)  organs  close  to  the  spiracles, 
(3)  glands  of  head  and  thorax,  (4)  oesophagus,  (5)  "internal 
superior  surface,"  (6)  folded  skin  beneath  antennae,  (7) 
rhinarium,    (8)  plate  between  eyes  and  beneath  antennae, 

1  Lubbock,  Sir  John,  1899.  The  senses,  instincts  and  intelligence  of 
animals.     Internat.  Sc.  Ser.  Lojidon.,  vol.  65. 

2  Mclndoo,  N.  E.,  1914.  The  olfactory  sense  of  insects.  Smithsonian 
misc.  col.  LXIII,  no.  9,  63  pp. 


170 


Beekeeping 


(9)  mouth  cavity,  (10)  epipharynx,  (11)  palpi,  (12)  antennae, 
(13)  various  structures  on  the  antennae,  (14)  caudal  styles, 
(15)  organs  on  base  of  wings  and  on  legs,  and  (16)  on  different 
organs  for  different  orders  of  insects.  Notwithstanding  this 
assortment  of  theories,  it  is  probably  correct  to  state  that 
until  recently  it  was  the  consensus  of  opinion  that  the  ol- 
factory organs  are  located  on  the 
antennae.  However,  Mclndoo^ 
shows  that  if  the  antennae  of  the 
honeybee  are  removed,  the  insect 
still  reacts  to  odor  stimuU.  It 
is  impossible  to  go  into  the  de- 
tails of  this  work  here,  but,  in 
brief,  this  author  concludes  that 
certain  sense  organs  located  at 
the  bases  of  the  wings,  on  the  legs 
and  on  the  stings  of  females  are 
olfactory  organs,  named  by  him 
olfactory  pores.  His  work  covers 
not  only  a  study  of  the  structure 
and  distribution  of  these  organs 
but  is  supported  by  experimental 
evidence,  which  is  usually  omitted 
in  other  papers  on  this  subject. 

The  location  of  these  organs  is 
indicated  on  the  diagrams  from 
Fig.  88.  —  Diagram  of  dorsal  Mclndoo's  paper  (Figs.  88  and 
view  of  worker,  showing  loca-  gg)^  the  Organs  being  indicated 

tion   of    groups    of    olfactory    ^     ^^^^^  ^^^^  ^^^  ^^^  different 
portis.  "^ 

groups  being  numbered  (21 
groups  in  all,  Nos.  19,  20,  and  21  being  on  the  sting  and 
not  shown  in  the  diagrams).  The  structure  of  a  typical 
olfactory  pore  is  shown  in  Fig.  90.  From  the  sense  cell 
(^C),  a  nerve  fiber  {SF)  extends  to  the  surface  of  the 
body  through  the  pore  aperture  {PorAp),  this  aperture  being 

1  Mclndoo,  N.  E.,  1914.     The  olfactory  sense  of  the  honey  bee.     Jr. 
exp.  zool.,  XVI,  pp.  265-346. 


The  Nervous  System  and  the  Senses 


171 


within  a  flask  (PorW)  which  lies  in  the  chitinous  body  wall. 
These  sense  organs  have  protoplasm  exposed  to  the  outer 
air,  not  covered  with  chitin,  while  most  of  the  other  organs 
which  have  been  supposed  to  have  the  olfactory  function 
are  covered  with  a  chitinous  layer.  This  is  especially  to  be 
noted  in  the  sense  organs  of  the  antennae  and  it  is  difficult 
to  see  how  odors  may  be  sup- 
posed to  penetrate  such  layers. 
The  structure  of  the  olfactory 
pores  therefore  fi^ts  them  for 
their  olfactory  function  and 
Mclndoo  has  shown  by  experi- 
mental evidence  that  this  is 
their  office.  He  ^  has  also  found 
these  olfactory  organs  in  spiders 
and  in  other  Hymenoptera. 

Admitting  that  these  olfac- 
tory pores  are  the  true  organs 
of  smell,  we  are  still  confronted 
with  some  difficulty  in  deciding 
what  part  responses  to  odor 
stimuli  play  in  the  behavior  of 
bees.  That  bees  are  attracted 
by  odor  to  honey  during  a 
dearth  of  nectar  cannot  be 
doubted.  Similarly  it  is  be- 
lieved that  the  recognition  of 
hive-mates,  the  discovery  of 
enemies  and  the  reactions  to- 
ward the  queen  are  due  to  re- 
sponses to  odors.  A  difficulty  encountered  in  this  field  of 
investigation  is  that  the  human  sense  of  smell  is  so  inefficient 
that  it  is  difficult  to  comprehend  the  responses  observed, 


Fig.  89.  —  Diagram  of  ventral 
view  of  worker,  showing  loca- 
tion of  groups  of  olfactory 
pores. 


1  Mclndoo,  N.  E.,  1911.  The  lyriform  organs  and  tactile  hairs  of 
araneads.     Proc.  acad.  nat.  sc.  Phila.,  LXIII,  pp.  375-418. 

,    1914.     The  olfactory  sense  of  Hymenoptera.  Ibid.,  LXVI,  pp. 

294-341. 


172 


Beekeeping 


which  is  perhaps  but  another  way  of  saying  that  we  are  too 
prone  to  put  human  interpretations  on  all  such  observations. 
V.  Buttel-Reepen/  from  his  wide  experience  with  bees, 
concludes  that  there  are  seven  normal  odors  in  a  colony  of 
bees  which  influence  behavior.  These  are  (1)  an  individual 
odor,  (2)  an  odor  common  to  the  offspring  of  one  queen, 
(3)  brood  and  larval-food  odor,  (4)  drone  odor,  (5)  wax  odor, 
(6)  honey  odor  and  (7)  the  hive  odor,  which  is  a  combination 
of  all  or  part  of  the  other  odors.  Whether  there  are  other 
normal  odors  is  a  matter  of  conjecture  but,  in  cases  of  dysen- 
tery or  a  brood  disease,  abnormal  odors  occur  which  influence 

the  behavior  of  the  bees. 

On  the  dorsal  side  of  the  ab- 
domen of  the  workers  and  queen 
on  the  articular  membrane  be- 
tween the  sixth  and  seventh 
terga  (counting  the  propodium) 
is  a  transverse  area  which  is 
the  external  portion  of  a  scent- 
producing  organ.  This  organ 
was  described  by  Nassenoff,^ 
later  by  Sladen^  and  more  re- 
cently Mclndoo  ^  has  described 
the  structure  of  the  glands  on 
the  interior  as  well  as  the  ex- 
ternal structure.  This  organ 
may  perhaps  be  considered  as  the  source  of  the  individual 
odor  of  the  females. 


Por^/lp 


Fig.  90.  —  Cross-section  of  typ- 
ical olfactory  pore:  SC,  sense 
cell ;  SF,  sense  fiber ;  PorAp 
pore  aperture. 


W.  Buttel-Reepen,  H.,  1900.  Sind  die  Bienen  Reflex-maschinen  ? 
Biol.  Centralbl.,  XX;  reprinted  Leipzig:  Georgi ;  Eng.  trans,  by  Mary 
H.  Geisler,  Medina,  O. :   A.  I.  Root  Co.,  48  pp. 

*  Nassenoff,  see  Zoubarefif,  A.,  1883.  A  propos  d'un  organe  de  Tabeille 
non  encore  decrit.  Bui.  d'apic.  Suisse  rom.,  V,  pp.  215-216.  Trans.  Brit, 
bee  jr..  No.  136.     Nassenoff's  paper  is  in  Russian. 

3  Sladen,  F.  W.  L.,  1901.  A  scent-producing  organ  in  the  abdomen  of 
the  bee.  Gleanings  in  bee  culture,  XXIX,  pp.  639-640 ;  also  in  Ent. 
month,  mag.,  XXXVIII,  pp.  208-211. 

4  Mclndoo,  N.  E.,  1914.  The  scent-producing  organ  of  the  honey  bee. 
Proc.  acad.  nat.  so.  Phila.,  LXVI,  pp.  542-555. 


The  Nervous  System  and  the  Senses 


173 


If  the  queen  is  removed  from  a  colony  and  a  strange  queen 
is  placed  among  the  bees  in  a  cage,  after  a  day  or  so  she  has, 
according  to  the  current  belief,  acquired  the  hive  odor  and 
she  will  be  accepted  if 
released.  If  a  strange 
bee  attempts  to  enter  a 
hive,  it  is  usually  recog- 
nized at  once  and  re- 
pelled, this  being  con- 
sidered as  due  to  the 
possession  of  a  different 
hive  odor,  but  if  a  field 
bee  returns  to  its  own 
hive,  it  is  admitted,  be- 
cause it  has  the  hive 
odor.  These  responses 
may  vary  according  to 
the  honey-flow  and  other 
environmental  factors. 
In  these  cases  and  many 
others,  there  is  evidence 
of  the  importance  of  re- 
sponses to  odors  in  the 
behavior  of  bees,  so  that 
there  is  justification  for  Fi^-.^i. 
beheving  that  the  sense 
of  smell  is  of  primary 
importance.  It  must  be 
admitted  that  the  belief 
in  this  importance  is 
based  chiefly  on  the  ac- 
cumulated experiences  of 


Antennal  organs:  A,  antennal 
joint  of  drone,  showing  a  few  pore  plates 
(For PI)  and  a  group  of  Forel's  flasks 
(FFl)  ;  B,  pore  plates  and  Forel's  flasks 
from  drone's  antenna ;  C,  pore  plates 
{PorPl),  pegs  {Pg)  and  tactile  hairs 
(THr)  from  worker's  antenna  ;  D,  struc- 
ture of  pore  plate  and  tactile  hair; 
E,  structure  of  peg ;  F,  structure  of 
tactile  hair ;  G,  structure  of  Forel's  flask ; 
H,  structure  of  pit  peg. 


beekeepers  rather  than 
on  careful  experiments,  which  are  sorely  needed  in  an  examina- 
tion of  these  data  in  order  to  eliminate  complicating  environ- 
mental factors.  Additional  evidences  of  odor  influences  are 
given  in  the  discussion  of  swarming. 


174  Beekeeping 

Antennal  sense  organs. 

Before  the  work  on  the  olfactory  pores,  just  described,  it 
was  supposed  that  some  of  the  sense  organs  on  the  antennae 
are  olfactory  organs.  Just  which  of  the  organs  serve  in  this 
way  was  not  easy  to  decide.  That  these  are  sense  organs 
can  scarcely  be  doubted,  but  in  view  of  the  elimination  of 
organs  of  smell  from  the  antennae  of  bees,  the  only  course  at 
present  is  to  describe  these  organs  and  leave  their  function 
to  be  decided  by  later  experimental  work.  The  accompany- 
ing illustration  (Fig.  91)  shows  the  distribution  and  struc- 
ture of  these  organs.  These  organs  are  known  as  (1)  pore 
plates,  (2)  pegs,  (3)  Forel's  flasks,  (4)  pit  pegs  and  (5)  tac- 
tile hairs.  In  all  of  them  the  sensory  cells  are  covered 
with  chitin. 

Taste. 

To  what  extent  bees  have  this  sense  has  not  been  made 
clear.  In  human  experience,  the  senses  of  taste  and  smell 
are  so  closely  related  that  to  determine  these  separately  in 
the  bee  will  prove  a  somewhat  difficult  task.  There  are  sen- 
sory cells  on  the  epipharynx,  in  the  mouth  cavity,  on  the 
palpi  and  perhaps  on  other  mouth  parts,  some  of  which  may 
prove  to  be  organs  of  taste.  The  evidence  that  bees  dis- 
tinguish tastes  is  meager.  It  is  well  known  that  bees  show 
preferences  in  the  material  collected.  They  will  for  example 
abandon  honey-dew  if  nectar  becomes  plentiful,  but  this 
action  may  not  be  due  to  a  sense  of  taste. 

Touch. 

This  sense  is  probably  well  developed,  and  it  is  safe  to 
assume  that  some  of  the  antennal  sense  organs  function  in 
this  way.  The  use  of  the  antennae  by  the  bees  suggests 
this.  Bees  are  remarkably  sensitive  to  jars  and  respond 
promptly  when  touched  on  various  parts  of  the  body. 
Most  of  the  hairs  which  cover  the  body  are  not  sensory, 
however. 


The  Nervous  System  and  the  Senses  175 

Hearing. 

No  organ  has  so  far  been  described  for  bees  which  is  surely 
an  organ  of  hearing  nor  is  it  definitely  established  that  bees 
can  hear.  In  experimenting  on  this  subject,  it  is  of  course 
necessary  that  vibrations  through  solids  be  eliminated  and 
that  the  stimulus  come  to  the  bee  only  through  vibrations 
of  the  air.  It  is  commonly  believed  by  beekeepers  that 
bees  hear,  the  belief  being  based  chiefly  on  the  fact  that  bees 
make  noises  which  are  interpreted  as  purposeful.  Various 
investigators  share  this  belief,  among  whom  may  be  men- 
tioned V.  Buttel-Reepen  ^  (I.e.).  Since  this  author  has 
.(pp.  12-18  Eng.  trans.)  gathered  together  the  evidence  on 
this  subject,  it  is  necessary  here  only  to  mention  the  various 
phenomena  which  he  details.  (1)  Queenlessness  of  a  strong 
colony  is  noticed  in  from  one  hour  to  several  hours.  The 
bees  no  longer  hum  ''contentedly,"  but  this  giVes  way  to  a 
"lamenting  buzz."  This  change  is  said  not  to  be  due  to  the 
lack  of  the  queen^s  odor,  although  the  author  admits  that  if  a 
dead  queen  is  placed  in  the  colony  the  agitation  ceases.  (2) 
If  a  colony  is  made  queenless  and  the  caged  queen  is  later 
placed  in  the  upper  part  of  the  hive,  the  agitation  ceases 
and  V.  Buttel-Reepen  cannot  believe  that  this  is  due  to  odor. 
(3)  Bees  disregard  a  queen  in  the  open  air  a  foot  from  the  hive. 
From  these  observations,  he  believes  that  odor  is  not  the  only 
factor  in  ''communication"  of  bees  and  he  believes  that 
bees  communicate  by  sound.  He  further  details  some 
other  evidence.  (1)  "It  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  sounds 
of  some  kind  perhaps  serve  here  [in  swarming]  for  communica- 
tion." (2)  The  "swarm  tone"  serves  to  draw  out  colonies 
scarcely  ready  to  swarm.  (3)  The  humming  of  bees  is  in- 
terpreted as  leading  the  bees  during  the  hiving  of  a  swarm. 

1  On  p.  2  (Eng.  trans.),  v.  Buttel-Reepen  says:  "No  zoologist  who  has 
done  any  experimental  beekeeping  can  have  the  least  doubt  that  bees 
have  an  excellent  sense  of  hearing,  since  observations  yield  him  hundreds 
of  proofs.  The  man  who  is  not  familiar  with  biological  facts  might  recog- 
nize nothing  of  the  kind  with  certainty,  for  up  to  the  present  the  organ  of 
hearing  has  not  been  discovered." 


176  Beekeeping 

(4)  The  queen  makes  at  least  two  sounds,  'Meeting '^  and 
''quahking."  (5)  When  a  queen  is  '^frightened"  she  emits 
a  pecuhar  sound.  This  author  concludes  by  claiming  that 
the  fact  that  bees  do  not  respond  to  artificial  sounds  is  no 
proof  of  a  lack  of  hearing. 

It  need  scarcely  be  pointed  out  that  these  statements  are 
not  conclusive  evidence  of  a  sense  of  hearing  in  bees ;  in  fact 
most  of  the  phenomena  observed  are  as  readily  interpreted  as 
evidence  of  a  sense  of  smell.  In  earlier  chapters  it  is  men- 
tioned that  the  phenomena  in  swarming  and  in  the  hiving 
of  a  swarm  are  most  plausibly  explained  as  brought  about 
by  reactions  to  odors,  v.  Buttel-Reepen's  statement  that 
*'only  the  dead  bee  is  quiet"  may  be  answered  by  the  state-' 
ment  that  a  totally  deaf  man  often  makes  more  noise  in 
walking  and  frequently  by  articulate  sounds  than  does  a 
man  with  acute  hearing.  To  sum  up,  we  are  justified  in 
concluding  (1)  that  no  organ  or  organs  of  hearing  are  recog- 
nized, (2)  that  the  existence  of  a  sense  of  hearing  is  doubtful, 
and  (3)  that  the  investigations  so  far  carried  out  are  incon- 
clusive. 

Temperature  sense. 

In  the  discussion  of  the  activities  of  bees  in  winter  (p.  90), 
it  is  stated  that  at  about  57°  F.  the  bees  form  a  cluster  and, 
if  the  outer  temperature  drops  below  that  point,  they  begin 
to  generate  heat.  When  no  cluster  is  formed  the  bees  are 
more  active  at  temperatures  above  69°  F.  than  at  tempera- 
tures below  this.  In  a  discussion  of  the  temperature  of  the 
hive  at  other  seasons  (p.  60),  it  is  shown  that  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  hive  while  occupied  by  the  bees  rarely  exceeds 
97°  F.  and  that  during  brood-rearing  the  temperature  of 
the  brood  chamber  is  quite  constant.  This  brief  summary 
of  the  facts  of  hive  temperature  indicates  that  in  some  manner 
bees  perceive  changes  in  temperature  and  it  may  almost  be 
believed  that  they  have  a  temperature  sense  superior  to  our 
own.  The  nerve  endings  or  sense  organs  which  function 
in  this  response  to  temperature  stimuli  are  not  determined 


The  Nervous  System  and  the  Senses  177 

and  perhaps  this  is  a  function  of  some  of  the  problematical 
organs  on  the  antennae. 

Finding  of  the  flowers. 

In  a  previous  chapter  (p.  118),  a  discussion  is  given  of 
the  division  of  labor  whereby  bees  are  seemingly  able  to 
apportion  the  available  forage  to  prevent  duplication.  In 
this  connection  the  interesting  question  arises  as  to  how  the 
bees  find  the  flowers.  Considerable  detailed  and  painstaking 
work  has  been  done  on  this  subject.  Plateau  ^  and  his 
followers  on  the  one  hand  believe  that  bees  are  guided  to  the 
nectar  by  odor,  this  being  supported  by  experimental  evi- 
dence as  well  as  by  an  array  of  facts  concerning  the  gathering 
of  nectar  from  inconspicuous  flowers.  ForeP  and  other 
writers  assert,  on  the  contrary,  that  color  is  the  important 
stimulus  and  that  flowers  are  found  through  the  sense  of 
sight.  Plateau's  work  is  open  to  one  important  criticism, 
since  he  overlooks  the  possibility  of  the  return  of  bees  to  his 
mutilated  flowers  through  memory.  Burton  N.  Gates, 
several  years  ago,  showed  that  bees  visit  artificial  flowers 
and  also  fly  to  natural  flowers  which  have  been  sealed  in 
glass  tubes.  The  reaction  to  these  unusual  objects  was 
entirely  normal.  These  results  point  strongly  to  the  belief 
that  odor  is  of  minor  importance  in  the  location  of  nectar- 

1  Plateau,  Felix,  1895-97.  Comment  les  fleurs  attirent  les  insects.  Bui. 
acad.  roy.  d.  Belgique,  3  s6r.,  XXX,  n.  11,  XXXII,  n.  11,  XXXIII,  n.  1, 
XXXIV,  n.  9,  10,  11.  See  also  Plateau,  1888.  Recherches  exp6rimen tales 
sur  la  vision  chez  les  arthropodes,  ibid.,  part.  3-5  and  other  papers. 

2  Forel,  Auguste,  1886-88.  Recueil  zoologiques  Suisse,  1  s6r.,  IV. 
,    1908.    The  senses    of   insects.     Eng.    trans.    Yearsley.    London : 

Methuen  and  Co.,  324  pp. 

See  also:  Andrese,  Eug.,  1903.  Inwiefern  werden  Insekten  dutch  Fabre 
und  Duft  der  Blum'en  angezogen.  Beihefte  z.  Bot.  Centralbl.,  XV. 

Giltay,  E.,  1901.  Ueber  die  Bedeutung  der  Krone  bei  den  Bliiten  und 
liber  das  Farbenunterscheidungs  vermogen  der  Insekten,  I.  Pringh.  Jahrb. 
f.  wiss.  Bot.,  XL. 

Detto,  Carl,  1905.  Blutenbiologische  Untersuchungen  I  u.  II.  Flora 
odor  Allg.  bot.  Zeit.,  XCIV. 

Kienitz-Gerloff,  1898  u.  1903.  Proffessor  Plateau  und  die  Blumentheorie 
I  u.  II.    Biol.  Centralbl.,  XVIII  u.  XXIII. 


178  Beekeeping 

secreting  plants.  That  bees  differentiate  between  flowers 
which  are  encountered  in  their  flights  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  they  usually  visit  but  one  species  on  a  trip  (p.  119). 

Finding  of  the  hive. 

It  is  well  known  that  bees  normally  return  to  the  right 
hive.  The  fact  that  strange  bees  are  not  usually  admitted 
may  be  explained  on  the  basis  of  difference  in  colony  odors 
but  this  does  not  explain  the  method  by  which  they  find 
the  right  hive  in  the  majority  of  cases.  Bethe  ^  asserts  that 
the  bees  are  led  back  to  the  hive  by  an  "unknown  force" 
but,  as  V.  Buttel-Reepen  points  out  in  his  discussion  of 
memory  of  place  in  bees,  this  explanation  is  not  satisfactory, 
and  cannot  be  accepted  until  the  known  forces  are  eliminated. 
It  will  be  recalled  (p.  105)  that  young  bees  take  "play  flights" 
on  warm  days.  If  bees  which  have  not  taken  such  flights 
are  taken  out  a  few  feet  from  the  hive,  they  fail  to  return. 
Bees  that  have  had  some  experience  on  the  wing  are  able  to 
return  from  short  distances,  and,  finally,  old  bees  are  often 
able  to  return  if  taken  away  two  miles  or  more.  They 
evidently  increase  in  efficiency  with  experience.  It  is  also 
known  that  if  the  hive  is  moved  a  foot  or  more  in  any  direc- 
tion the  returning  bees  seek  the  entrance  to  the  hive  in  the 
old  place.  If  the  hive  has  been  moved  only  a  short  distance 
they  may  soon  find  it  by  searching,  but  if  it  is  moved  several 
feet  they  may  fail  to  find  it. 

If  bees  were  attracted  to  the  hive  by  odor,  the  field  bees 
would  probably  have  no  difficulty  in  finding  it  if  it  were 
moved  perhaps  a  mile.  Under  such  circumstances  a  short 
distance  would  make  no  appreciable  difference  and  yet  the 
moving  of  the  hive  a  foot  often  delays  their  entering  it.  Odor 
is  therefore  evidently  not  the  guiding  sense. 

Bees  in  the  field  cannot  always  see  their  hive,  and  in  all 
probability,   they   can   see   neither   far   nor   distinctly.     If 

*  Bethe,  A.,  1898.  Dilrfen  wir  Ameisen  und  Bienen  Psychische  Quali- 
taten  zuschreiben?  Arch.  f.  d.  ges.  Phys.,  LXX,  also  as  separate,  1898. 
Bonn :    Emil  Strauss,  with  different  paging. 


The  Nervous  System  and  the  Senses  179 

sight  is  their  guide,  they  must  remember  various  objects 
over  or  about  which  they  fly  as  they  go  out  and  must  return 
by  known  paths.  This  is  actually  the  case.  If  bees  are 
accustomed  to  fly  in  only  one  direction  to  the  forage  and 
are  carried  off  a  sh6rt  distance  into  unknown  environment, 
they  fail  to  return.  It  is  evident  that  bees  are  guided  back 
to  their  hives  by  a  memory  of  the  objects  encountered,  as 
perceived  by  sight.  If  a  hive  is  moved,  they  then  follow  over 
the  accustomed  paths  to  the  old  location  of  the  entrance, 
but  having  no  experience  over  the  road  from  the  old  location 
to  the  new  one,  they  fail  to  make  the  trip  unless  they  acciden- 
tally encounter  the  hive.  No  ''unknown  force"  need  be 
called  in  here  to  explain  the  phenomena.  Evidently  the  play 
flights  and  the  early  trips  to  the  field  are  the  times  during 
which  bees  acquire  knowledge  of  their  surroundings.  If  a 
colony  is  moved  several  miles,  the  bees  must  orient  themselves 
anew,  and  in  order  that  they  may  perceive  the  change  and 
''recognize"  the  necessity  for  re-orientation,  the  beekeeper 
often  places  brush  or  grass  about  the  entrance  so  that  the 
change  may  be  perceived  when  they  first  fly  out. 

That  sight  is  the  important  sense  in  the  location  of  the  hive 
is  appreciated  by  beekeepers  who  have  learned  that  irregu- 
larities in  the  rows  of  hives,  landmarks  of  trees  or  shrubs 
in  the  apiary  or  differences  in  color  of  the  hives  are  beneficial 
in  enabling  the  bees  to  find  their  hives  quickly.  These  cus- 
toms are  well  founded  on  the  behavior  of  the  bees. 

Memory. 

It  would  appear  from  the  preceding  discussion  that  bees 
are  not  entirely  bundles  of  reflexes  but  that  they  actually 
have  memory.  The  finding  of  the  hive  is  good  evidence  of 
this  fact  and  it  is  also  asserted  (v.  Buttel-Reepen)  that  they 
remember  the  location  of  the  feeder  in  the  hive  and  that 
scouting  bees  remember  the  paths  to  the  locations  chosen 
by  them. 

The  best  evidence  of  memory  is  found  in  the  fact  that 
memory  is  sometimes  lost.     If  bees  are  stupefied  by  tobacco 


180  Beekeeping 

smoke,  by  the  smoke  of  the  puff  ball  (an  old  practice)  or 
by  some  anesthetic,  they  are  unable  to  return  to  their  old 
location  and  must  re-orient  themselves  after  they  revive. 
When  bees  swarm  they  usually  do  not  again  return  to  the 
location  of  the  old  hive  (except  when  hived  on  the  old  stand 
by  the  beekeeper)  and  may  safely  be  placed  in  a  new  location 
perhaps  only  a  few  feet  from  the  old  hive.  The  memory  of 
the  old  location  is  not  lost  immediately,  however,  for  if 
within  a  day  or  two  the  bees  desert  the  new  quarters  they 
often  return  to  the  old  hive.  Here  the  old  memories  are,  as 
it  were,  reserved,  but  they  are  lost  in  a  short  time.  Simi- 
larly in  artificial  swarms,  after  drumming  or  after  certain 
manipulations  in  which  the  colony  becomes  ''demoralized," 
the  memory  of  the  location  is  lost,  either  permanently  or 
temporarily.  If  bees  are  confined  for  a  few  days  they  may 
be  placed  in  any  location  and  bees  wintered  in  a  cellar  no 
longer  remember  their  former  locations.  The  loss  of  memory 
in  these  cases  is  not  due  to  the  formation  of  new  associations. 
Bees  obviously  cannot  lose  what  they  do  not  possess  and,  if  it 
is  granted  that  memory  is  sometimes  lost,  the  only  conclusion 
is  that  they  possess  memory. 

Nature  of  bee  activities. 

In  the  introduction  to  Chapter  III,  it  was  stated  that  bees 
are  essentially  creatures  of  instinct.  While  in  the  intervening 
discussions  there  are  given  evidences  of  the  possession  of 
memory,  of  limited  powers  of  learning  and  association  and  of 
certain  adaptations  of  the  reactions  of  bees  to  circumstances, 
it  should  be  clear  that  in  the  bee  we  have  to  do,  not  with 
human  intellects  and  poetic  passions,  but  with  animals  whose 
behavior  is  chiefly  guided  by  mental  capacities  imprisoned  in 
the  chains  of  instinct,  with  animals  most  of  whose  activities 
are  justly  described  as  machine-like.  If.  this  discussion  of 
the  nervous  responses  of  bees  has  destroyed  some  of  the 
poetry  of  the  hive,  this  can  scarcely  be  considered  as  a  serious 
loss,  for  it  is  not  by  such  fancies  that  we  can  come  to  know 
the  truth  concerning  the  things  about  us. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  REPRODUCTIVE   PROCESSES  AND  PAR-- 
THENOGENESIS 

The  organs  of  reproduction  are  those  which  produce  the 
cells  from  which  individuals  of  the  next  generation  develop 
and  they  also  include  the  accompanying  organs  which  serve 
to  permit  the  proper  disposition  of  the  sex  cells.  The  con- 
tinuance of  the  species  is  the  function  of  these  organs.  In  the 
larger  number  of  species,  new  individuals  arise  from  eggs  which 
have  been  fertiUzed  by  sex  cells  of  the  male  of  the  same 
species.  In  the  honeybee,  we  are  not  only  interested  in  the 
methods  by  which  new  individuals  arise  but  certain  peculiar 
phenomena  play  an  important  part  in  practical  apiary  ma- 
nipulations. The  development  of  the  drones  or  males  from 
unfertilized  eggs  must  be  considered,  especially  by  the  queen 
breeder. 

Origin  of  the  eggs. 

The  eggs  from  which  all  the  members  of  the  colony  develop 
are  normally  laid  by  the  queen.  In  this  individual,  the  only 
female  in  the  colony  whose  reproductive  organs  are  fully 
developed,  the  ovaries  are  large  and,  in  fact,  she  is  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  simply  an  egg-producing  machine.  The 
ovaries  of  the  queen  (Fig.  92)  consist  of  two  groups  (Ov)  of 
egg  tubes  or  ovarioles  (ov).  These  tubes  are  small  at  the 
anterior  end  where  the  eggs  are  beginning  their  growth  and 
toward  the  posterior  end  the  individual  tubes,  as  well  as 
the  total  mass,  increase  in  diameter.  At  the  posterior  end, 
the  tubules  in  each  mass  open  into  the  anterior  end  of  an  ovi- 
duct (OvD).    The  oviducts  from  the  two  ovaries  imite  farther 

181 


182 


Beekeeping 


back  into  a  common  tube  or  duct,  the  vagina  {Vag),  which 
opens  to  the  outside  below  the  base  of  the  sting.     The 

posterior  portion 
of  the  vagina  is 
enlarged,  forming 
the  bursa  copula- 
trix  {BCyx). 

Opening  from 
the  vagina  is 
the  spermatheca 
(Spm),  a  sac-like 
organ  which  serves 
to  receive  the 
male  sex  cells,  the 
spermatozoa,  from 
the  drone  at  the 
time  of  mating 
and  to  retain 
them  until  they 
are  needed.  At- 
tached to  this  are 
two  accessory 
glands  (SpmGl) 
the  duct  of  which 
opens  into  the 
duct  from  the 
spermatheca  to 
T.      r.o      T3       J    X-  X-         J      •        the   vagina.     The 

Fig.  92.  —  Reproductive  organs,  stmg  and  poison      i      ,        ?  ii 

glands  of  queen,  dorsal  view.  dUCt       irom       the 

spermatheca  is  S- 
shaped  and  is  surrounded  by  muscles  forming  the  **  sperm- 
pump"  of  Breslau.^  By  the  contraction  of  some  of  these 
muscles,  the  lumen  of  the  upper  end  of  the  loop  is  enlarged 
and  a  small  bundle  of  spermatozoa  is  taken  from  the  sperma- 
theca.    By  the  contraction  of  other  muscles,  the  sperma- 

1  Breslau,  Ernst,  1905-06.     Die  Samenblasengang  der  Bienenkonigin. 
Zool.  Anz.,  XXIX,  pp.  229-323. 


The  Reproductive  Processes  and  Parthenogenesis    183 

tozoa  are  forced  on  to  the  vagina.  Cheshire  ^  described 
this  apparatus  incorrectly  by  assuming  that  the  muscles 
around  the  duct  are  sphincter  muscles  to  hold  back  motile 
spermatozoa.  The  spermatozoa,  according  to  Breslau,  are 
not  motile  and  no  retaining  muscle  is  needed.  In  copu- 
lation the  spermatozoa  are  deposited  by  the  drone  in  the 
vagina  and  must  find  their  way  to  the  spermatheca  by 
this  same  duct.  There  is  no  special  receiving  duct  as 
described  by  Cheshire.  The  spermatheca  is  not  composed 
of  muscle  layers,  as  formerly  supposed. 

Cheshire  estimates  that  a  normal  vigorous  queen  may 
during  her  lifetime  lay  1,500,000  eggs.  Since  mating  occurs 
usually  but  once,  those  eggs  which  are  fertilized  must  re- 
ceive spermatozoa  from  the  supply  stored  up  in  the  sperma- 
theca at  the  time  of  mating.  Since  at  each  expulsion  of 
spermatozoa  a  considerable  number  pass  out  and  all  but  one 
are  wasted,  it  is  necessary  that  an  enormous  number  be 
stored  originally.  Cheshire  estimates  the  number  at  4,000,- 
000  but  it  is  enough  to  know  that  millions  are  then  stored. 
The  marvelous  feature  of  the  phenomenon  is  that  these 
minute  cells  are  able  to  live  for  perhaps  five  years  away  from 
the  animal  in  which  they  were  fornied  (the  drone)  and  at 
the  same  time  are  so  highly  specialized  that  they  can  take 
no  nourishment.  There  is  no  multiplication  of  spermatozoa 
in  the  queen  as  has  been  hypothecated  by  various  beekeepers. 

The  formation  of  the  eggs  has  been  studied  by  Paulcke.^ 
In  the  early  stages  of  the  formation  of  the  egg  at  the  anterior 
end  of  the  ovarian  tubes,  the  future  egg  nucleus  is  surrounded 
by  other  nuclei  which  later  form  nurse  cells.  There  is  at 
first  no  visible  differentiation,  no  cell  boundaries  being  seen, 
but  farther  down  the  tube  the  nuclei  are  surrounded  by  cell 
walls.     Gradually  the  future  egg  cells  begin  to  enlarge  and 

^  Cheshire,  F.  R.,  1885,  The  apparatus  for  differentiating  the  sexes  in 
bees  and  wasps.     Jr.  roy.  micr.  soc,  ser.  2,  V,  pp.  1-15. 

*  Paulcke,  W.,  1900.  Ueber  die  Differenzirung  der  Zellelemente  im 
Ovarium  der  Bienenkonigin  (Apis  mellifica).  Zool.  Jahrb.  Anat.  u.  Ontog., 
XIV,  pp.  177-202. 


184  Beekeeping 

the  individual  egg  cells  are  separated  by  a  number  of  nurse 
cells,  48  to  each  egg,  according  to  Paulcke.  The  egg  cell 
increases  in  size  chiefly  by  an  accumulation  of  yolk  which 
serves  as  food  for  the  future  embryo,  this  yolk  being  supplied 
by  the  nurse  cells,  which  finally  are  exhausted  and  absorbed 
into  the  yolk  of  the  egg.  The  egg  and  nurse  cells  are  sur- 
rounded by  an  epithelium  which  grows  thinner  as  the  egg 
enlarges  and  which  finally  breaks  when  the  egg  passes  into 
the  oviduct. 

The  egg  is  covered  by  a  thin  layer  of  chorion  secreted 
around  it  by  the  epithelial  cells  and  the  boundaries  of  the 
cells  may  be  seen  in  the  lines  which  persist  on  the  chorion, 
forming  a  delicate  network  on  the  surface.  At  the  anterior 
end  of  the  egg  (where  the  head  of  the  larva  is  formed  and  also 
toward  the  head  of  the  queen)  there  is  a  peculiar  arrangement 
of  these  lines,  forming  the  micropyle.  Here  the  spermato- 
zoon which  fertilizes  the  egg  enters,  but  the  mechanism  has 
not  been  adequately  described.  In  most  insects  there  is  a 
definite  opening  for  the  entrance  of  the  spermatozoon  and 
often  a  complex  mechanism  for  the  closing  of  the  opening 
after  fertilization.  There  is  nothing  so  described  for  the 
bee  egg. 

Origin  of  the  male  sex  cells. 

The  organs  of  the  male  (Fig.  93)  in  which  the  male  sex 
cells  originate  are  equally  interesting.  The  spermatozoa 
develop  in  the  testes  {Tes)^  two  organs  homologous  with  the 
ovaries  of  the  queen.  The  development  of  the  spermatozoa 
probably  occurs  almost  entirely  during  the  pupal  development 
of  the  drone  and  possibly  not  at  all  in  the  adult  drone.  From 
the  testes,  the  spermatozoa  pass  through  the  vas  deferens 
(VDef)  into  the  vesicula  semenalis  {Ves)  where  they 
collect.  The  seminal  vesicles  open  into  the  base  of  the 
accessory  mucous  gland  (AcGl).  These  in  turn  open  into  a 
single  duct,  the  ejaculatory  duct  (EjD),  unusually  large  in 
the  drone  and  curiously  indented  to  conform  to  the  structure 
of  the  vagina. 


The  Reproductive  Processes  and  Parthenogenesis    185 
Ej9        .:.^^     Pen  AcQ 


virs''  \m  ixs 


Fig.  93.  —  A,  reproductive  organs  of  drone,  dorsal  view,  natural  position; 
B,  inner  surface  of  dorsal  wall  of  bulb  of  penis ;  C,  group  of  sperma- 
tozoa and  intermixed  granules;  D,  terminal  segments  of  drone  ab- 
domen with  penis  partly  protruded;  E,  lateral  view  of  peuia  aa 
invaginated  within  abdomen. 


186  Beekeeping 

At  the  time  of  copulation,  the  penis,  which  is  previously 
folded  within  the  abdomen  of  the  drone,  is  everted  and  pro- 
jects into  the  vagina  of  the  queen.  The  spermatozoa  then 
pass  through  the  ejaculatory  duct  as  does  presumably  also 
the  contents  of  the  accessory  mucous  glands.  The  forma- 
tion of  the  spermatozoa  has  been  studied  by  Meves,^  by 
Mark  and  Copeland  ^  and  by  Doncaster.^ 

The  sudden  expulsion  of  the  penis  causes  the  immediate 
death  of  the  drone.  The  structure  of  the  penis  may  be 
readily  seen  by  gently  squeezing  the  abdomen  of  a  drone, 
by  which  means  it  is  everted.  In  this  case  also  the  drone 
dies  immediately  so  that  his  death  at  the  time  of  mating 
should  not  be  attributed  to  any  action  of  the  queen.  As  has 
been  previously  stated  (p.  69),  mating  occurs  in  the  air 
outside  the  hive. 

Parthenogenesis. 

The  chief  reason  why  the  reproductive  processes  require 
extended  discussion  in  a  book  on  practical  beekeeping  is 
because  of  the  development  of  the  drones  or  males  from 
unfertiUzed  eggs.  In  most  species,  the  sex  cells  disintegrate 
unless  they  unite  with  the  products  of  the  opposite  sex  of  the 
same  species,  but  there  are  numerous  instances  in  the  animal 
kingdom  in  which  egg  cells  are  produced,  which,  without 
fertilization,  are  able  to  develop  into  normal  adults.  To 
this  phenomenon  the  name  parthenogenesis  ^  is  given. 

1  Meves,  Fr.,  1903.  Ueber  Richtungskorperbildung  im  Hoden  von 
Hymenopteren.     Anat.  Anz.,  XXIV,  pp.  29-32. 

,  1907.     Die    Spermatocytenteilungen    bei   der   Honigbiene    {Apis 

mellifica  L.)  nebst  Bemerkungen  iiber  Chromatinreduction.   Arch,  f .  Microsk. 
Anat.  u.  Entwick.,  LXX,  pp.  414-491. 

2  Mark,  E.  L.  and  Copeland,  Manton,  1907.  Some  stages  in  the  sper- 
matogenesis of  the  honey  bee.  Proc.  Am.  acad.  arts  and  sciences,  XLII, 
pp.  103-111. 

3  Doncaster,  L.,  1906.  Spermatogenesis  of  the  hive  bee,  Apis  mellifica. 
Anat.  Anz.,  XXIX. 

,  1907.     Spermatogenesis  of  the  honey  bee.     Ibid.,  XXXI. 

*  For  a  more  extended  discussion,  see  Phillips,  E.  F.,  1903.  A  review 
of  parthenogenesis.     Proc.  Am.  philos,  soc,  XLII,  No.  174,  pp.  275-345. 


The  Reproductive  Processes  and  Parthenogenesis   187 

In  1745,  Bonnet  described  the  parthenogenetic  develop- 
ment of  plant  lice  and  just  one  hundred  years  later  Dzierzon 
announced  his  theory  that  the  drone  is  likewise  a  product 
of  an  unfertilized  egg.  This  later  paper,  published  in  the 
Eichstadt  Bienenzeitung,  was  the  beginning  of  a  long  and 
heated  discussion  in  which  the  leading  zoologists  of  the  day 
took  part.  Briefly  his  theory  was  as  follows :  (1)  the  queen 
is  able  "at  pleasure"  to  lay  either  worker  or  drone  eggs,  the 
drone  eggs  being  deposited  just  as  they  leave  the  cvary  ^  ; 
(2)  all  eggs  in  the  ovary  are  eggs  which  would  normally 
develop  into  males  and  if  fertilization  occurs  the  sex  is 
changed  to  female.  It  is  well  to  divide  Dzierzon's  theory 
into  these  two. parts  for  they  are  not  equally  capable  of  proof. 

The  facts  observed  in  the  apiary  on  which  this  belief  is 
based  are  as  follows :  (1)  If  a  queen  is  unable  to  fly  out  to 
mate  or  is  prevented  from  mating  in  some  other  way  she 
usually  dies  (p.  70)  but  if  she  does  lay  eggs,  as  she  may, 
after  three  or  four  weeks,  the  eggs  which  develop  are  all  males ; 
(2)  if  when  a  queen  becomes  old  her  supply  of  spermatozoa 
is  exhausted,  her  offspring  are  all  males ;  (3)  if  a  colony  be- 
comes queenless  and  remains  so  for  a  time,  some  of  the 
workers  may  begin  egg-laying  and  in  this  case  too  only 
males  develop.  The  author  has  found  that  many  eggs  laid 
by  drone-lajdng  queens  fail  to  hatch  and,  in  fact,  are  often 
removed  in^a  short  time  by  the  workers.  This  makes  it 
impossible  for  us  to  accept  Dzierzon's  statement  that  all 
eggs  laid  by  such  a  queen  become  males  and  the  statement 
must  be  modified  as  follows  :  all  of  those  eggs  laid  by  a  drone- 
laying  queen  which  develop  become  males.  The  poten- 
tiahties  of  the  eggs  which  never  hatch  are  not  known.  In 
addition  to  the  facts  here  stated,  the  theory  of  the  partheno- 
genetic development  of  the  drone  is  supported  by  investiga- 
tions of  the  phenomena  of  development  in  the  egg. 

1  Onions  (1912,  South  African  fertile-worker  bees.  Agricultural  Journal 
of  the  Union  of  S.  Af .,  May)  claims  that  in  South  African  bees  females  are  also 
produced  parthenogenetically.  The  claim  is  supported  by  considerable 
evidence.  See  also  Van  Warmelo,  D.  S.,  ibid.,  1913,  who  denies  this  state- 
ment. 


188  Beekeeping 

Sex  determination. 

The  determination  of  sex  is  one  of  the  most  earnestly 
debated  questions  in  zoology.  Numerous  theories  have  been 
proposed,  most  of  which  are  not  now  seriously  considered. 
From  the  observations  and  conclusions  of  Dzierzon  and  other 
observers  it  was  long  held  that  sex  in  bees  and  similar  forms 
(ants  and  wasps)  is  determined  by  the  presence  or  absence 
of  fertiUzation.  These  species  were  seemingly  an  exception 
to  the  phenomenon  observed  in  most  species.  Of  recent 
years,  sex  determination  has  been  the  object  of  numerous 
investigations  and  it  is  now  quite  generally  accepted  that 
sex  is  inherited  in  accordance  with  the  same  laws  which  govern 
other  phenomena  of  inheritance.  It  is,  of  course,  impossible 
to  attempt  to  record  here  or  even  to  outline  the  observations 
which  lead  to  this  theory  or  to  elaborate  the  theory,  as  has 
been  done  by  various  authors.  It  is  now  held  that  one  of 
the  chromosomes  (the  bearers  of  hereditary  characters)  of 
the  sex  cells  bears  the  sex-determining  character.  If  we 
take  into  consideration  the  important  fact  that  not  all  the 
eggs  of  an  unfertilized  (drone-laying)  queen  hatch,  then  the 
bee  does  not  appear  as  an  exception  in  Nature.  It  seems 
clear,  however,  that  the  statement  of  Dzierzon  that  all  the 
eggs  in  the  ovary  are  male  eggs  cannot  be  accepted  and  it  is, 
in  fact,  not  improbable  that  the  eggs  destined  to  be  females 
die  for  want  of  fertilization,  while  the  eggs  destined  to  be 
males,  not  requiring  fertilization,  are  capable  of  development. 
It  should  be  understood  that  the  casting  of  doubt  on  Dzier- 
zon's  theory  of  sex  determination  does  not  invalidate  his 
theory  in  so  far  as  it  pertains  to  the  development  of  males 
from  unfertilized  eggs. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  drone  eggs  are  usually  deposited 
in  the  larger  cells,  the  theory  has  been  advanced  that  the 
pressure  on  the  abdomen  of  the  queen  when  she  is  about  to 
lay  an  egg  in  a  worker  cell,  by  some  reflex,  causes  the  sper- 
matheca  to  open,  thereby  enabUng  the  egg  to  be  fertilized. 
This  is  known  among  American  beekeepers  as  the  Wagner 
theory.     Since  fertilized  eggs  may  be  laid  in  comb  foundation 


The  Reproductive  Processes  and  Parthenogenesis    189 

when  the  side  walls  are  only  started  and  since  drone  eggs 
are  often  laid  in  worker  cells,  this  simple  explanation  cannot 
be  accepted. 

From  the  various  phenomena  observed  in  connection  with 
parthenogenetic  development,  it  appears  that  fertilization 
of  the  egg  serves  two  purposes;  it  brings  to  the  egg  the 
hereditary  characters  of  the  male  parent  and  also  stimulates 
the  egg  cell  to  develop  by  cell  division.  If  development  can 
occur  without  this  stimulation,  the  resulting  individual  con- 
tains the  hereditary  characters  from  one  parent  only.  It 
should  perhaps  be  mentioned  that  in  plant  lice  both  males 
and  females  sometimes  develop  from  unfertilized  eggs  while  in 
certain  Lepidoptera  only  females  develop  from  unfertilized 
eggs.  The  male  sex  is  not  a  necessary  result  of  partheno- 
genetic development. 

The  theory  that  drones  develop  from  unfertilized  eggs 
has  not  been  accepted  without  protest.  From  the  begin- 
ning, it  has  been  assailed  by  the  publication  of  evidence  and 
arguments  which  were  supposed  to  contradict  the  theory. 
In  the  author's  paper,  to  which  reference  has  been  made, 
the  various  contrary  views  are  outlined  and  the  interested 
reader  is  referred  to  this  paper  for  references  to  the  literature 
on  the  subject  up  to  the  date  of  publication  (1903).  Of 
recent  critics,  none  is  so  insistent  as  Dickel,  a  German  bee- 
keeper, who  claims  that  fertile  queens  cannot  lay  unfer- 
tilized eggs  and  that  sex  is  determined  by  secretions  of  the 
nurse  bees.  These  fantastic  theories  with  others  of  a  similar 
character  have  been  adequately  overthrown  by  Dickel' s 
critics  and  need  not  be  discussed  at  length  here. 

Practical  applications. 

The  development  of  males  from  unfertilized  eggs  is  a  fact 
of  importance  in  various  phases  of  apiary  work.  If,  for 
example,  an  Italian  queen  mates  with  a  black  drone,  the 
workers  and  queen  offspring  are  hybrids,^  while  the  drone 

1  Exception  is  sometimes  taken  to  the  use  of  the  word  hybrid  as  applied 
to  a  cross  of  two  races,  in  which  sense  it  is  used  by  beekeepers.     This 


190  Beekeeping 

or  male  offspring  is  pure  Italian.  This  fact  is  important  to 
the  breeder,  for  drones  from  mismated  queens  are  just  as 
good  for  breeding  purposes  as  those  from  purely  mated 
queens.  It  is  true  that  this  has  been  denied  by  various 
writers  but  the  denial  is  based  chiefly  on  variation  in  the  color 
of  the  drones,  it  being  overlooked  that  color  is  not  a  safe 
criterion  for  the  purity  of  race  of  either  queens  or  drones. 
Color  is  a  much  more  stable  characteristic  in  workers.  The 
parthenogenetic  development  of  drones  must  be  considered 
in  planning  any  breeding  work  with  bees.  In  the  selection 
of  breeding  material  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  because 
the  workers  of  a  colony  have  the  quality  desired  that  the 
drones  of  that  colony  will  be  best  for  breeding  purposes, 
since  the  hereditary  characters  of  the  workers  come  from 
two  parents  while  those  of  the  drones  come  from  only  one  of 
the  two. 

Hermaphrodite  hees. 

Many  cases  are  recorded  ^  of  bees  which  show  both  male 
and  female  characters.  These  hermaphrodites  or  androgy- 
nous bees  may  have  male  characters  on  the  head  and  female 
characters  in  the  abdomen  or  they  may  be  divided  longitudi- 
nally in  various  combinations  of  characters.  There  is  a 
rnixture  of  male  and  female  characters,  varying  in  different 
individuals,  in  both  external  and  internal  organs.  It  is  a 
peculiar  fact,  not  easy  of  explanation,  that  when  such  cases 
occur  there  are  often  many  in  the  same  colony.  '  Boveri  ^ 
suggests  that  in  such  cases  fertilization  is  delayed  until  after 
cell  division  has  begun  and  that  only  part  of  the  cells  receive 

criticism  is  probably  based  on  the  belief  that  sterility  is  characteristic  of 
hybrids,  as  in  the  case  of  the  naule,  or  it  may  be  based  on  the  belief  that 
the  word  should  be  applied  only  to  crosses  of  true  species.  There  seems  to 
be  no  objection  to  the  word  as  beekeepers  use  it.  It  is  most  commonly 
applied  to  crosses  of  Italian  and  German  bees. 

1  V.  Delia  Torre,  K.  W.  u.  Friese,  H.,  1899.  Die  hermaphroditen  und 
gynandromorphen  Hymenopteren.  Berichte  d.  naturw.-med.  Ver.  Inns- 
bruck,  XXIV. 

2  Boveri,  Th.,  1901.  Ueber  die  Polaritat  des  Seeigel-eies.  Verh.  Ges. 
Wurzburg  (N.  S.),  XXXIV,  pp.  145-176. 


The  Reproductive  Processes  and  Parthenogenesis    191 

the  male  chromosomes.  While  this  theory  would  readily 
explain  the  great  variation  in  such  hermaphroditic  bees  it 
is  based  on  the  assumption  that  sex  is  determined  by  fertili- 
zation, which  may  be  questioned. 

Eggs  which  fail  to  hatch. 

In  some  cases,  one  of  which  came  under  the  author^s 
observation,  queens  are  normally  mated  and  lay  eggs,  but  all 
the  eggs  fail  to  hatch.  This  is  perhaps  due  to  some  abnor- 
mality of  the  queen,  and  in  the  case  examined  it  appeared 
that  the  failure  to  hatch  might  have  been  due  to  the  evap- 
oration of  the  water  in  the  protoplasm  through  the  unusually 
thin  and  soft  chorion  of  the  eggs.  Similar  cases  were  de- 
scribed by  Claus  and  v.  Siebold  ^  and  also  by  Leuckart.^ 

1  Claus  u.  V.  Siebold,  1873.  Ueber  taube  Bienen-eier.  Zeit.  f.  wiss.  Zool., 
XXIII,  pp.  198-210. 

2  Leuckart,  R.,  1875.  Ueber  taube  u.  abortive  Bieneneier.  Arch. 
Naturgesch.,  XL. 


CHAPTER  IX 

RACES  OF  BEES 

The  honeybee,  so  well  known  to  beekeepers,  has  certain 
near  relatives  which  are  of  interest,  and  it  is  quite  probable 
that  a  careful  study  of  the  various  phases  in  the  behavior  of 
these  bees  would  throw  considerable  Ught  on  similar  phe- 
nomena in  the  honeybee.  The  honeybee  is  usually  considered 
as  representing  the  apex  of  the  evolution  of  the  bees  (Apidse), 
in  that  the  social  organization  is  the  most  complex  found 
in  this  family  of  insects.  The  ants  (Formicidse)  and  wasps 
(Vespidse)  represent  lines  of  parallel  evolution  in  social  life 
which  has  resulted  in  insect  communities,  comparable,  but 
by  no  means  identical,  with  that  of  the  honeybee. 

TYPES   OF   SOCIAL   BEES 

Among  the  Apidse  are  three  great  types  of  social  bees,  the 
bumblebee  (Bombus),^  the  stingless  bees  (Melipona  and 
Trigona)  and  the  honeybees  (Apis).  The  simplest  forms,  the 
bumblebees,  have  smaller  colonies  which  die  out  during  the 
winter,  leaving  the  species  to  be  continued  from  fertilized 
queens  which  hibernate.  The  stingless  bees  are  tropical 
insects  which  store  their  honey  and  pollen  in  spherical  vessels 
and  rear  their  brood  in  "combs,"  one  cell  in  thickness.  In 
the  honeybee  colony,  the  architecture  is  the  most  perfect 
and  the  honey  and  pollen  are  stored  and  the  brood  is  reared 
in  hexagonal  cells,  which  combine  to  form  a  comb  two  cells 

*  For  an  excellent  discussion  of  the  biology  of  English  bumblebees, 
consult  Sladen,  F.  W.  L.,  1912.  The  humble-bee,  the  life  history  and  how 
to  domesticate  it.     London :    Macmillan  and  Co. 

192 


Races  of  Bees  193 

in  thickness.  The  bumblebees  and  stingless  bees  fill  a  cell 
with  pollen  and  honey,  the  queen  then  deposits  an  egg  on 
this  mass  and  the  larva  is  not  further  fed  or  cared  for.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  queen  honeybee  lays  her  eggs  in  empty 
cells  and  the  larvae  are  fed  a  specially  prepared  larval  food 
as  they  require  it.  For  a  further  discussion  of  the  more 
primitive  bees  as  well  as  of  the  probable  evolution  of  the 
Apidae,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  interesting  paper  of  v. 
Buttel-Reepen.i 


SPECIES   OF   THE   GENUS   APIS 

In  the  genus  Apis  there  are  other  interesting  honeybees  but 
which  have  no  special  practical  value.  It  is  of  interest  to 
note  first  that  specimens  of  Apis  have  been  found  in  fossil 
form,  preserved  in  amber,  v.  Buttel-Reepen  mentions  A. 
adamitica  and  A.  meliponoides,  the  latter  transitional  be- 
tween Melipona  and  Apis.  Among  recent  species  of  this 
genus  are  A.  dorsata,  the  giant  bee  of  India,  with  its  varieties 
zonata  and  testacea  of  the  Philippines  and  the  Malay  penin- 
sula, A.  florea,  a  dwarf  bee  of  India  with  several  varieties 
and  finally  A.  mellifica,^  the  honeybee  with  the  numerous 
varieties  to  be  discussed  later.  Unsuccessful  efforts  have 
been  made  to  introduce  the  giant  bees  into  Europe  and 
America,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  trips  of  Benton, 
1880  and  1905,  and  Dathe,  1883.  Dathe  succeeded  in  getting 
living  dorsata  bees  to  Germany  but  the  effort  was  fruitless. 
The  last  mentioned  trip  of  Benton  was  at  the  expense  of  the 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  Dorsata  builds  a  single 
comb  in  the  open  air,  usually  suspended  on  the  limb  of  a 

1  von  Buttel-Reepen,  H.,  1903.  Die  stammesgeschichtliche  Entstehung 
des  Bienenstaates  sowie  Beitrage  zur  Lebensweise  der  solitaren  und  sozialen 
Bienen  (Hummeln,  Meliponinen,  etc.).     Leipzig:    Thieme. 

2  For  a  discussion  of  the  propriety  of  mellifica  as  the  specific  name  of 
the  honeybee,  see  v.  Buttel-Reepen,  H.,  1906.  Apistica.  Beitrage  zur 
systematik  Biologie  u.  s.  w.  Mitth.  aus  dem  Zool.  Mus.  Berlin,  and  also  the 
English  translation  of  his  paper  "Are  Bees  Reflex  Machines?"  (Medina, 
O. :   Root,  1907).     See  also  p.  37  of  this  book. 


i.94  Beekeeping 

tree ;  there  is  no  distinction  between  drone  and  worker  cells 
and  these  bees  do  not  take  kindly  to  confinement  in  a  hive.^ 


VARIETIES   OF   THE   SPECIES   MELLIFICA 

In  the  classification  of  insects,  differences  in  structure 
and  color  are  the  characters  on  which  classification  is  usually 
made,  but  in  the  differentiation  of  the  varieties  of  honeybees 
there  are  no  constant  differences  in  these  characters  to  guide 
the  student.  The  varieties  are  established  by  beekeepers 
because  of  recognized  and  well-marked  differences  in  the 
behavior  of  the  bees  from  various  regions.  They  are,  how- 
ever, valid  biological  varieties.  While  there  are  color  dif- 
ferences, these  are  of  little  value  in  attempting  a  classifica- 
tion. Since  beekeepers  usually  refer  to  these  divisions  of  the 
species  as  races,  this  term  is  here  adopted.  Roughly  the 
races  are  divided  into  three  groups,  (1)  the  eastern  races, 
(2)  the  European  races  and  (3)  the  African  races.  Certain 
characteristics  of  these  groups  are  valid  but  the  grouping  is 
somewhat  artificial.  The  principal  races  are  here  discussed 
in  the  order  suggested  by  this  grouping,  the  names  given  the 
races  being  indicative  of  their  origin.^ 

Egyptian. 

These  bees  are  somewhat  smaller  than  the  races  best 
known  to  American  beekeepers,  the  abdomen  is  slender  and 

^  For  further  data  concerning  the  various  species  of  the  genus  Apis, 
consult  the  above  mentioned  papers  by  v.  Buttel-Reepen  as  well  as  the 
following :  — 

Gerstacker,  1862.  Ueber  die  geographische  Verbreitung  und  die  Abande- 
rungen  der  Honigbiene  nebst  Bemerkungen  iiber  die  auslandischen  Honig- 
bienen  der  alten  Welt.  Reprinted  in  v.  Buttel-Reepen's  Apistica.  Partial 
English  translation  by  Dallas,  Ann.  and  mag.  of  nat.  history,  1863,  III 
series,  vol.  11. 

Koshewnikov,  G.  A.,  1900-1905  [Material  for  the  study  of  the  genus 
Apis]  Russian. 

Additional  references  are  given  in  the  v.  Buttel-Reepen  papers. 

*  None  of  the  races  of  the  honeybee  is  native  to  America.  The  German 
bees  were  introduced  early  in  the  history  of  the  country  and  are  often 
designated  native  bees,  but  this  is  an  error.     After  their  introduction  they 


Races  of  Bees  195 

pointed  and  the  cells  of  the  comb  are  also  said  to  be  some- 
what smaller.  The  first  three  segments  of  the  abdomen  are 
light  yellow  to  reddish  yellow  with  black  border,  being 
brighter  than  Italians.  The  abdomen  is  covered  with  grayish 
white  hairs.  The  abdomen  of  the  queen  is  marked  with 
reddish  brown  on  the  first  segment  and  the  color  areas  are 
variable.  Queens  and  drones  are  small  and  the  queens  are  pro- 
lific. These  bees  sting  furiously  and  are  not  subdued  by  smoke. 
They  do  not,  according  to  v.  Buttel-Reepen,  form  a  winter 
cluster  and  therefore  cannot  withstand  cold  weather.  Drones 
are  reared  in  large  numbers;  the  cappings  are  "watery"  ;  ^ 
the  queen  cells  are  small,  very  numerous,  clustered  and 
smooth.  Fertile  workers  are  abundant  and  are  said  to  be 
present  even  when  there  is  a  laying  queen.  These  bees  were 
introduced  into  Germany  in  1864  and  to  England  and 
America  in  1867.  Here  they  attracted  considerable  atten- 
tion but  were  promptly  abandoned  as  worthless. 

Syrian. 

There  are  two  races  of  bees  in  Palestine,  one  of  which  is, 
according  to  v.  Buttel-Reepen,  identical  with  the  Egyptian. 
The  other  is  known  among  American  beekeepers  as  the 
Holy  Land  bees.  The  Syrians  are  larger  than  the  Egyptians 
and  in  color  they  resemble  Italians.  These  bees  swarm 
excessively,  build  many  queen  cells  and  winter  poorly. 
Many  virgin  queens  go  with  after  swarms  and  do  not  kill 
each  other  until  one  is  mated.  Young  queens  lay  drone 
eggs  in  the  first  month.  These  bees  were  introduced  into 
America  in  1880  by  Jones  and  Benton  but  were  soon  aban- 
doned as  valueless.  They  were  introduced  by  Hopkins 
into  New  Zealand  in  1883. 

multiplied  rapidly  and  were  soon  found  in  the  woods.  It  was  formerly  a 
common  saying  that  a  swarm  always  flies  westward  (to  new  territory). 
1  Some  races  of  bees  fill  their  honey  cells  more  completely  than  others 
and  when  the  honey  is  in  contact  with  the  capping  it  gives  the  honey  an 
appearance  that  is  described  as  watery.  When  the  capping  is  separated 
from  the  honey  by  an  air  space  the  capping  appears  white  (or  yellow,  de- 
pending on  the  color  of  the  wax).  In  general  the  black  races  seem  to 
produce  whiter  comb  cappings  than  more  yellow  bees. 


196  Beekeeping 

Cyprian, 

This  bee  has  been  given  a  thorough  test  by  American 
beekeepers.  It  is  somewhat  smaller  than  the  Italian  and 
the  abdomen  is  pointed,  with  three  yellow  bands,  similar 
to  that  of  ItaUans  but  somewhat  Hghter  in  color.  The 
queens  are  small  and  very  prolific.  These  bees  winter  well 
unless  the  colony  wears  itself  out  by  breeding  in  winter. 
The  workers  are  exceptionally  cross,  are  not  subdued  by 
smoke  and  do  not  run  on  the  combs.  They  build  many 
queen  cells  (less  than  Syrians).  Sent  (unsuccessfully)  to 
America  by  Gravenhorst  in  1877  and  first  imported  by 
Stahala  in  1879 :  additional  shipments  by  Jones  and  Benton 
in  1880.  They  have  been  widely  advertised  and  tested  but 
were  abandoned  because  of  their  unmanageable  qualities. 

Grecian. 

These  bees  resemble  a  hybrid  between  Italians  and  Ger- 
mans. So  far  as  known  they  have  not  been  shipped  to 
America.     They  were  sent  to  Germany  in  1860  by  v.  Roser. 

Caucasian. 

These  bees  vary  in  color  from  three  bands  of  yellow  on 
the  abdomen  to  black  or  gray  according  to  the  region  from 
which  they  come.  The  ones  introduced  into  America  have 
shown  virtually  no  yellow  color,  having  come  from  the  more 
northern  parts  of  the  Caucasus.  The  yellow  examples  are 
said  to  resemble  Italians  markedly.  This  is  the  most 
gentle  race  known,  although  they  defend  their  hives  well 
against  robbers.  They  seldom  enter  the  wrong  hive,  win- 
ter well,  cap  their  honey  cells  white  and  are,  in  the  main, 
desirable  bees.  The  hybrids  are  not  gentle.  They  were 
first  taken  from  their  native  country  by  Butlerov  in  1877 
and  were  shipped  to  Germany  in  1879  to  Vogel,  who  de- 
scribed them  carefully.  The  first  exportations  were  chiefly 
the  yellow  strains.  In  1880  JuUus  Hoffman,  Ft.  Plains, 
New  York,  received  two  colonies  of  these  bees  but  condemned 


Races  of  Bees 


197 


Fig.  94.  —  Propolis  at  entrance,  built  by  Caucasian 
bees.  The  entrance  block  on  one  side  made  a 
propolis  wall  unnecessary  there. 


them  because  they  did  not  work  on  buckwheat !  Later 
Rauchfuss  Brothers,  Denver,  Colorado,  imported  queens  of 
this  race  and  recommended  them.  Following  this,  addi- 
tional queens  were  imported  and  American  bred  queens  were 
distributed  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
several  years  ago. 

The  gentleness  of  this  race  is  universally  admitted,  but 
Caucasians  have  some  faults  which  have  caused  them  to  be 
abandoned  by  most  beekeepers  who  have  tried  them.  They 
use  propolis  most 
lavishly  and  in 
the  autumn  of- 
ten build  a  wall 
at  the  entrance, 
leaving  holes 
only  large  enough 
for  single  bees 
to  pass  (Fig.  94). 
They  also  build 

many  burr  and  brace  combs.  The  dark  color  makes  it  diffi- 
cult to  tell  when  the  queens  are  purely  mated  and  the  dark 
queens  are  difficult  to  find  on  the  combs.  An  additional  fac- 
tor which  has  led  to  the  lack  of  interest  in  this  race  is  the 
rapid  spread  of  European  foul  brood  within  recent  years. 
This  has  virtually  necessitated  the  use  of  Italian  bees  in 
many  localities  and  has  discouraged  experimentation  with 
other  races.  There  are  still  several  prominent  beekeepers 
who  are  enthusiastic  in  their  praise  of  the  Caucasians. 

Italian, 

This  is  the  most  popular  race  of  bees  among  the  best 
American  beekeepers.  The  bees  of  Italy  vary  considerably 
in  color,  those  in  the  north  of  the  country  being  virtually 
identical  with  the  German  bees  in  color.  The  typical 
*' three-banded"  Italians  are  found  farther  south  and  in 
Sicily  there  is  a  still  fighter  strain.  Some  investigators 
befieve  Itafians   to  be  a  cross   between  the   German  and 


198  Beekeeping 

Egyptian  bees.  Typically,  the  yellow  color  covers  three 
segments  of  the  abdomen,  the  head  and  thorax  and  posterior 
segments  of  the  abdomen  being  black  with  some  traces  of 
yellow  on  the  mandibles,  and  the  hairs  have  a  yellow  cast. 
The  legs  are  brown.  Queens  and  drones  are  variable  in 
color  from  solid  black  to  the  yellow  found  on  workers. 
Italians  are  gentle  (but  not  equal  to  Caucasians  in  this 
respect),  less  prolific  than  the  eastern  races  but  usually 
better  than  black  bees,  build  few  queen  cells,  rarely  develop 
fertile  workers,  keep  the  hive  clean,  drive  out  wax-moths, 
winter  well,  do  not  run  on  the  combs,  swarm  less  than  Carnio- 
lans  and  some  eastern  races  and  cap  their  honey  less  white 
than  Germans,  Carniolans  and  Caucasians.  The  rearing  of 
brood  is  quickly  curtailed  in  a  dearth  of  nectar  and  they 
cease  rearing  broojd  in  the  autumn  sooner  than  most  races. 
An  important  characteristic  of  Italians  is  the  resistance  to 
European  .foul  brood.  In  this  respect,  they  have  been  com- 
pared chiefly  with  German  bees,  to  which  race  they  are 
vastly  superior. 

Itahan  bees  were  sent  to  Switzerland  (by  v.  Baldenstein) 
in  1843,  to  Germany  in  1853,  to  England  (by  Neighbor)  in 
1859  and  to  France  about  the  same  time  (by  Hamet),  to 
Australia  in  1862  and  again  in  1880,  to  German  Guinea  in 
1887,  from  California  to  New  Zealand  in  1880,  from  Germany 
to  Ceylon  in  1882  and  from  Italy  to  New  Zealand  (to 
Hopkins)  in  1883,  to  Guam  in  1907  (from  Hawaii  by  Van 
Dine). 

The  first  importation  of  these  bees  to  America  has  been  a 
matter  of  some  dispute  and  was  the  basis  of  a  sharp  contro- 
versy. Their  introduction  marks  an  important  milestone 
in  American  apiculture,  almost  equal  in  importance  to  the 
invention  of  the  movable-frame  hive.  About  1855,  Samuel 
Wagner  and  Edward  Jessop  of  York,  Pennsylvania,  made  an 
unsuccessful  importation  of  an  Italian  colony,  which  died 
en  route.  In  the  winter  of  1858-59,  Wagner,  Langstroth 
and  Colvin  (Baltimore)  sent  an  order  to  Dzierzon  (Germany), 
which  was  not   delivered.     Later  in   1859,   they  received 


Races  of  Bees  199 

seven  living  queens  ^  from  Dzierzon  and  reared  two  or  three 
queens  that  fall,  but  the  imported  queens  all  died  the  follow- 
ing winter.  On  the  same  steamer  that  brought  these  queens, 
Mahan  (Philadelphia),  who  had  made  a  trip  to  Europe 
for  these  bees,  brought  over  ''one  or  more"  queens  (of 
doubtful  purity).  In  June  1860,  Wagner  and  Colvin 
received  another  consignment.  In  the  meantime,  S.  B. 
Parsons  (Flushing,  L.  I.,  New  York)  was  commissioned  by 
the  Agricultural  Division  of  the  Patent  Office  to  procure 
ten  colonies,  which  he  purchased  from  Herman  of  Tamins 
(reported  by  him  January  3,  1860)  and  shipped  from  Havre, 
reaching  the  United  States  in  May.  In  the  annual  report 
of  the  Division  of  Agriculture  submitted  January  29,  1861, 
the  Superintendent  reports  that  the  effort  was  unsuccessful 
''owing  to  inattention  to  the  instructions  given  by  the  agent 
of  the  Office."  C.  J.  Robinson  later  asserted  that  he  and 
Mahan  had  solicited  an  order  from  the  Commissioner  of  the 
Patent  Office  in  1859  authorizing  Mahan  to  proceed  to  Italy 
and  procure  bees.  This  request  was  refused  but  it  was 
claimed  that  this  instigated  the  movement  to  have  Parsons 
(an  agent  of  the  Division  then  in  Italy)  get  the  bees.  Robin- 
son states  that  Parsons  bought  ten  for  the  Government  and 
ten  for  himself  (this  second  purchase  is  denied  by  the  friends 
of  Parsons)  and  that  he  reported  that  all  the  bees  consigned 
to  the  Government  died.  At  any  rate.  Parsons  in  1860 
placed  at  least  some  of  his  stock  in  the  hands  of  Gary, 
Langstroth,  Quinby  and  others  and  the  sale  of  Italian  queens 
began  in  1861.  Riley,  then  Chief  of  the  Division  of  En- 
tomology, in  1892  claimed  for  the  Government  the  credit 
of  the  first  importation  direct  from  Italy.  Rose  (New 
York)  received  colonies  in  1861  and  Colvin  continued  ship- 
ments from  the  Dzierzon  apiary  in  1863-64.  Various 
other  early  shipments  were  made,  and  now  many  queens 
are  received  annually.     In  the  early  days  of  the  enthusiasm 

1  A  cage  dated  May  1859  in  Dzierzon's  handwriting  was  found  by  C.  H. 
Lake  after  he  purchased  the  Colvin  apiary  (Beekeeper's  Instructor  III, 
No.  12,  1881). 


200  Beekeeping 

over  Italian  queens  they  often  sold  for  twenty  dollars  each. 
Italian  bees  are  now  found  everywhere  that  beekeeping  is 
conducted  and  are  usually  considered  preferable  to  all 
others.  In  the  United  States,  special  attention  has  been 
given  to  the  breeding  of  Italian  bees  and  it  is  probably  true 
that  better  Italian  stock  can  now  be  obtained  in  America 
than  in  Italy. 

To  distinguish  differences  in  strains  of  Italian  bees  and 
in  part  to  provide  trade  names,  various  names  have  been 
given  by  American  beekeepers  to  certain  types.  The  five- 
banded  or  "Golden-all-over"  bees  have  been  bred  specially 
for  an  increase  in  the  yellow  color  on  the  abdomen.  The 
red  clover  Italians  sold  several  years  ago  were  supposed  to 
have  a  tongue-length  above  the  average,  sufficient  to  allow 
them  to  get  nectar  from  the  red  clover  blossom.  Various 
strains  are  distinguished  by  the  name  of  the  breeder.  The 
specially  yellow  bees  are  not  usually  considered  as  desirable 
for  commercial  beekeeping  as  the  typical  Italians,  which 
are  commonly  designated  as  three-banded  or  leather-colored. 

German. 

These  bees  are  black  in  color  and  are  generally  known 
among  American  beekeepers  as  ''Black  bees."  It  is  of 
interest  to  note  that  according  to  Dzierzon  there  were  yellow 
bees  in  Germany  before  Italians  were  introduced  and  this 
helps  to  explain  the  variation  in  the  German  bees.  v.  Buttel- 
Reepen,  following  distinctions  made  by  Dzierzon  and  other 
early  writers,  divides  the  German  bees  into  two  varieties, 
the  typical  variety  and  the  heath  bees.  The  typical  variety 
is  native  to  Germany,  Russia,  Scandinavia,  Denmark, 
Holland,  England,  Switzerland,  Austro-Hungary  and  parts 
of  other  European  countries.  The  heath  bee  is  darker  than 
the  typical  variety,  swarms  excessively  and  is  especially 
adapted  to  honey-flows  coming  in  late  summer  (buckwheat, 
heather) :  young  queens  in  after  swarms  lay  drone  eggs 
abundantly  the  first  season.  This  variety  is  found  in  Hano- 
ver, Holstein,  Oldenburg  and  Holland.     There  is  a  possi- 


Races  of  Bees  201 

bility  that  there  are  two  varieties  of  German  bees  found  in 
the  United  States,  as  is  so  often  claimed,  and  that  these 
have  arisen  from  these  two  natural  varieties. 

The  German  or  black  bees  found  in  the  United  States 
seem  to  combine  many  of  the  undesirable  qualities  of  all 
other  bees.  They  are  less  prolific  than  Italians,  they  (and 
especially  crosses  with  Italians)  are  cross  but  respond  to 
smoke,  they  build  more  queen  cells  than  Italians  and  develop 
fertile  workers  more  readily  (less  in  these  last  respects  than 
the  eastern  races),  they  do  not  clean  the  hive  well  or  resist 
moths  completely,  they  run  badly  on  the  combs  and  fall 
off  from  the  corners  of  the  combs  during  manipulation  and 
they  swarm  more  than  Italians.  Their  greatest  fault  is 
that  they  succumb  so  rapidly  to  European  foul  brood  that 
it  is  most  difficult  to  rid  a  colony  of  black  bees  of  this  disease. 
They  cap  comb-honey  white  and  winter  fairly  well,  but 
their  nervousness  is  against  them  in  this  respect.  While 
these  bees  are  condemned  by  the  best  American  beekeepers, 
some  of  the  leading  beekeepers  of  Europe  (especially  in 
Switzerland)  claim  them  to  be  superior  to  Italians.  Since 
no  effort  has  been  made  to  improve  these  bees  in  America, 
this  may  account  for  this  difference  of  opinion. 

The  German  or  black  bees  were  introduced  into  New 
England  (probably  from  England)  in  1638.  In  1644,  John 
Eales  was  brought  to  Newburg  from  a  neighboring  town  to 
instruct  the  people  in  beekeeping,  indicating  an  early  in- 
terest in  the  industry,  but  he  later  became  a  town  charge. 
Black  bees  reached  West  Florida  not  later  than  1763,  Ken- 
tucky in  1780,  New  York  in  1793,  west  of  the  Mississippi 
River  in  1797,  Cuba  in  1764,  San  Domingo  in  1781,  New 
South  Wales  in  1822,  Tasmania  in  1831,  New  Zealand  in  1839, 
Brazil  in  1845  (or  earlier),  Chile  about  1848,  California  in 
1853,  Columbia  about  1855  and  Argentine  in  1857.  Har- 
bison took  116  colonies  (with  a  loss  of  only  six)  from  Penn- 
sylvania to  California  via  Panama  in  1857.  The  same  year 
(August  20th)  the  first  bees  were  shipped  from  San  Jos^, 
California,  to  Hawaii. 


202  Beekeeping 

Carniolan. 

These  bees  are  grayish-black  in  color  and  the  claim  that 
yellow  bees  were  native  to  parts  of  Carniola  is  often  ques- 
tioned. Professor  Francis  Jager  is  authority  for  the  statement 
that  the  bees  of  the  Wippach  valley  (Vipavska  dolina)  are 
yellow.  Carniolan  bees  are  large,  gentle  (second  only  to 
Caucasians),  prolific,  swarm  excessively,  are  good  honey- 
gatherers,  build  numerous  queen  cells,  collect  little  propolis, 
winter  admirably,  cap  their  honey  white  and  do  not  run 
on  the  combs  during  manipulation.  It  is  claimed  by  some 
beekeepers  that  they  resist  European  foul  brood  as  well  as 
Italians :  this  should  be  thoroughly  investigated  by  disin- 
terested persons.     They  are  native  to  Carniola,  Austria. 

These  bees  have  been  shipped  repeatedly  to  Germany  and 
other  European  countries  and  to  America.  While  they 
have  some  ardent  advocates  in  the  United  States,  they  are 
losing  ground,  especially  on  account  of  their  swarming  pro- 
clivities and  the  black  color,  which  American  beekeepers  do 
not  fancy.  Queen  breeders  have  distinguished  other  races, 
which  are  not  distinct  from  the  Carniolan,  among  which  are 
the  Banat  (Banater)  race,  of  recent  importation  into  America, 
and  the  Dalmatian  which  appeared  in  American  literature 
in  the  eighties.  The  names  of  other  provinces  have  been 
used  as  trade  names  for  different  breeders. 

African  races. 

While  several  races  of  bees  have  been  distinguished  from 
Africa,  in  addition  to  the  Egyptian  previously  discussed, 
very  little  information  is  at  hand  concerning  these  bees  in 
the  hands  of  beekeepers.  A  yellow  race,  described  as  Apis 
adonsoni,  is  found  in  parts  of  Africa,  having  the  abdomen 
a  darker  reddish-yellow  than  the  Egyptian.  On  the  north 
coast  of  Africa  is  found  a  black  bee,  known  among  beekeepers 
as  Tunisian,  Punic  or  North  African.  This  race  extends 
well  into  the  continent.  The  bees  of  this  origin  that  have 
been  tried  in  the  United  States  are  extremely  cross,  propo- 
Kze  excessively  and  winter  badly.     They  are  not  now  known 


Races  of  Bees  203 

to  be  present  in  the  United  States.  A  separate  race  of  black 
bees  is  described  from  Madagascar  and  other  islands  and 
still  another  from  Togoland.  It  is  well  known  that  honey- 
bees are  abundant  in  parts  of  Africa  and  careful  explorations 
would  doubtless  reveal  many  interesting  facts  concerning 
these  bees.  Onions  ^  claims  that  in  the  South  African  race 
the  unmated  workers  lay  eggs  which  develop  into  female 
bees.  As  the  continent  of  Africa  becomes  more  settled  by 
white  men  and  as  apiculture  advances,  we  may  expect  some 
interesting  additions  to  our  knowledge  of  the  African  races 
of  bees. 

Asiatic  races. 

V.  Buttel-Reepen  (Apistica)  places  A.  indica  as  a  variety 
of  A.  mellifica.  It  is  a  smaller  bee,  which  is  said  to  bite 
rather  than  sting.  It  crosses  with  previously  described 
races.     Several  sub-varieties  are  indicated. 

Chinese- Japanese. 

These  bees  are  placed  by  v.  Buttel-Reepen  as  sub-varieties 
of  indica.  The  Chinese  bee  has  a  heavy  coat  of  long  dirty 
gray  hair ;  the  Japanese  bee  lacks  this. 

BEST  RACE  OF  BEES 

To  answer  the  question  as  to  which  race  of  bees  is  best 
is  difficult.  For  comb-honey  production,  the  German, 
Camiolan  and  Caucasian  races  have  the  advantage  of  capping 
the  honey  white  but  the  German  bees  are  especially  subject 
to  European  foul  brood,  Carniolans  swarm  excessively 
(especially  in  comb-honey  production)  and  Caucasians 
propolize  badly.  Without  going  further  into  the  merits 
and  demerits  of  the  various  races,  it  may  be  as  well  to  give 
the    almost    unanimous    verdict    of    American   beekeepers, 

1  Onions,  G.  W.,  1912.  South  African  "fertile  worker-bees."  Agricul- 
tural Journal  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  May.  See  also  Van  Warmelo 
in  the  same  journal,  1913. 


204  Beekeeping 

which  is  in  favor  of  the  ItaUan  race.  It  is  probably  true 
that  the  tests  made  cannot  be  considered  as  free  from  prej- 
udice but  the  decision  was  made  years  ago  and  no  special 
reason  has  been  presented  for  changing  it.  Since  this  race 
became  popular  it  has  been  carefully  bred  and  it  is  easier 
to  get  good  stock  of  this  race  than  of  any  other  in  the  United 
States.  It  was  the  first  race  brought  to  this  country  in  the 
effort  to  improve  on  the  early  introduced  black  bees  and 
proved  so  vastly  superior  that  it  soon  took  a  firm  hold  on 
American  beekeepers.  It  is  doubtful  whether  any  other 
race  will  be  accepted  as  better  or  even  as  good  by  the  ma- 
jority of  beekeepers  and  certainly  no  markedly  better  race 
has  been  tried  in  this  country. 


CHAPTER  X     : 

REGIONAL  DIFFERENCES  WITHIN  THE  UNITED 

STATES 

Before  discussing  the  different  methods  of  manipulating 
bees  in  the  successful  production  of  honey,  it  may  be  help- 
ful to  point  out  some  of  the  fundamental  differences  found 
between  various  parts  of  the  United  States  in  regard  to  the 
sources  of  honey  and  in  climatic  conditions,  which  influence 
the  choice  of  the  proper  system  of  manipulation.  In  the 
American  literature  on  beekeeping,  these  differences  are 
frequently  mentioned  and  the  word  '' locality"  in  the  bee- 
keeper^s  vocabulary  has  come  to  be  used  as  an  all-inclusive 
argument  or  excuse  for  his  particular  practice  and  often 
partially  to  cover  his  ignorance  of  the  actual  reasons  for 
differences  observed.  This  term  'locality"  is  the  subject 
of  the  present  chapter.  As  will  be  shown  later,  two  apiaries 
but  a  few  miles  apart  may  give  quite  different  results,  not 
only  in  the  amount  or  source  of  crops  but  in  the  effect  of 
certain  manipulations,  and  the  facts  here  presented  help 
to  explain  these  differences.  Since  migratory  beekeeping  is 
practiced  only  between  two  unlike  regions,  this  subject  is 
also  discussed  in  the  present  chapter. 

The  system  of  manipulation  to  be  followed  and  the  manner 
in  which  honey  may  best  be  prepared  for  market  depend  on 
the  color  and  quality  of  the  honey  and  perhaps  especially 
on  the  length  and  intensity  of  the  nectar-flow.  While  the 
chief  sources  of  honey  are  discussed  in  another  chapter,  it 
may  be  helpful  here  to  present  in  outline  the  combination 
of  floral  and  climatic  conditions  which  so  strongly  influences 

205 


206  Beekeeping 

the  business  of  honey-production  and  guides  the  beekeeper 
in  choosing  suitable  locations  for  his  apiaries. 

Variation  in  intensity  of  honey-flows. 

In  general,  the  nectar-flows  increase  in  rapidity  or  intensity 
as  one  goes  northward  and  with  this  rapidity  in  the  honey- 
flow  usually  comes  a  shortening  of  the  period  during  which 
nectar  is  secreted.  As  a  rule,  the  northern  honeys  are  lighter 
in  color,  although  there  are  many  exceptions  which  will  be 
pointed  out  later.  In  the  more  northern  localities,  the 
beginning  and  end  of  the  honey-flows  are  usually  sharply 
marked,  while  in  the  South  there  is  a  gradual  increase  in  the 
honey-flow  to  the  maximum  and  a  correspondingly  gradual 
cessation  of  the  honey-flow. 

Variation  in  the  value  of  plants. 

There  is  a  striking  difference  in  the  value,  from  a  beekeep- 
er's standpoint,  of  plants  according  to  locality,  and  the  causes 
of  these  phenomena  are  in  most  cases  not  understood.  A 
few  of  the  more  striking  examples  will  serve  to  illustrate 
this  variation.  White  clover  yields  nectar  most  abundantly 
in  the  northern  range  of  this  plant,  while  farther  south  the 
flow  of  nectar  from  this  plant  is  less  intense  and  the  honey  is 
often  somewhat  darker.  Alfalfa  yields  nectar  freely  in 
the  irrigated  districts  of  the  West,  but  is  usually  of  no  value 
to  the  beekeeper  east  of  the  Mississippi  River.  Buck- 
wheat is  the  source  of  large  honey  crops  in  parts  of  southern 
New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  while  in  Indiana  and  Illinois 
it  secretes  much  less  nectar,  again  increasing  in  value  to  the 
beekeeper  in  Michigan.  Exceptions  to  these  general  state- 
ments sometimes  arise  because  of  abnormal  climatic  condi- 
tions. For  example,  a  heavy  honey-flow  from  alfalfa  was 
recently  obtained  in  the  vicinity  of  Syracuse,  New  York. 
This  was  probably  not  due  to  the  plants  becoming  accli- 
mated but  occurred  in  a  dry  season.  In  some  seasons  white 
clover  yields  well  much  farther  south  than  the  limits  pre- 
viously given.     Other  examples  are  given  later. 


Regional  Differences  within  the  United  States     207 

BEEKEEPING   REGIONS 

It  helps  to  an  understanding  of  the  dijfferences  in  the  prac- 
tices of  beekeepers  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States  if 
we  divide  the  country  into  honey  regions.  This,  as  any 
experienced  beekeeper  will  at  once  recognize,  is  a  more  or 
less  arbitrary  division  and  many  exceptions  might  be  cited 
to  the  following  classification.  In  the  main,  however,  the 
nature  of  the  honey-flows  justifies  such  an  arrangement,  and 
this  plan  is  still  more  permissible  if  we  consider  the  systems 
of  manipulation  found  most  advantageous  by  beekeepers. 
These  regions  may  first  be  divided  into  general  and  restricted, 
depending  chiefly  on  their  area.  The  general  regions  are 
those  not  only  of  considerable  extent,  but  of  greater  influence 
on  the  choice  of  manipulations. 

General  regions. 

These  are  five  in  number  and  the  division  is  based  on 
differences  in  climatic  conditions  found  in  the  United  States. 
The  placing  of  the  sage  region  in  the  rank  of  a  general  re- 
gion is  justified  mainly  by  the  size  of  the  crops  obtained 
there  in  favorable  seasons. 

(1)  The  white  clover  region  includes  eastern  Canada,  the 
New  England  States,  except  along  the  coast,  and  a  belt  along 
the  northern  United  States  as  far  west  as  the  Dakotas. 
It  is  limited  to  the  west  by  the  arid  region  and  again  reap- 
pears on  the  Pacific  coast,  both  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  The  southern  boundary  is  approximately  Mason 
and  Dixon's  line  and  the  Ohio  River.  In  this  region,  in  addi- 
tion to  white  clover,  alsike  clover,  sweet  clover,  basswood, 
tulip  poplar  and  locust  contribute  to  the  honey  crops  and, 
with  the  exception  of  that  from  tulip  poplar,  the  honeys 
from  these  sources  are  light  in  color.  Alsike  clover  is  steadily 
increasing  in  importance  with  its  wider  planting  for  forage, 
while  basswood  is  rapidly  disappearing  because  of  the  exten- 
sive cutting  of  this  tree  for  lumber.  In  this  region  the 
honey-flows  are  rapid  and  relatively  short  and  the  main 


208  Beekeeping 

honey-flow  is  usually  preceded  by  a  honey-flow  from  spring 
flowers  (fruit  bloom,  dandelion)  followed  by  a  dearth.  In 
the  more  northern  localities  this  interval  is  brief  or  entirely 
absent.  After  the  main  honey-flow  there  is  usually  a  period 
when  no  nectar  is  available,  followed  again  by  a  late  summer 
or  fall  honey-flow  (buckwheat,  asters,  goldenrod  or  Spanish 
needle,  according  to  locality).  This  region  is  suitable  for 
comb-honey  production  better  than  any  other  part  of  the 
United  States,  on  account  of  the  intensity  of  the  honey-flows 
and  the  light  color  of  most  of  the  honeys.  The  necessity 
for  a  rapid  building  up  of  colonies  in  the  spring  and  the  diffi- 
culty of  swarm  control  make  necessary  special  systems  of 
manipulation  in  this  region.  The  wintering  problem  is 
naturally  most  acute  here  also.  Most  of  the  American 
literature  on  beekeeping  in  both  books  and  journals  is  based 
on  systems  applicable  to  the  white  clover  region.  The 
honeys  of  this  region  are  in  great  demand,  probably  because 
the  honey-consuming  public  is  better  educated  to  the  flavors 
obtained  here.  In  this  region  are  thousands  of  beekeepers 
with  only  a  few  colonies,  although  the  number  of  specialists 
is  increasing  satisfactorily. 

(2)  The  alfalfa  region  is  located  in  the  West,  where  this  plant 
is  chiefly  grown  for  forage.  Alfalfa  is  at  its  best  as  a  nectar- 
producing  plant  under  irrigation  and  usually  at  high  alti- 
tudes. Colorado,  Utah  and  Jdaho  are  now  the  largest 
producing  States  in  this  region.  Sweet  clover  is  also  an 
important  contributor  to  the  nectar  supply  in  some  sections. 
The  honey  of  this  region  is  usually  of  fine  flavor  and  Hght 
in  color,  but  alfalfa  honey  quickly  begins  to  granulate  and 
in  consequence  would  seem  best  adapted  to  extracting. 
The  honey-flow  is  not  so  rapid  as  in  the  white  clover  region, 
which  also  makes  this  region  less  favorable  for  comb-honey 
production.  However,  many  beekeepers  of  this  region 
produce  comb-honey  extensively.  The  system  of  manip- 
ulation is  different  from  that  in  the  white  clover  region 
because  the  honey-flows  are  usually  longer  and  swarming 
is  less  difficult  to  control.     The  number  of  honey-flows  de- 


Regional  Differences  within  the  United  States     209 

pends  on  the  number  of  crops  of  alfalfa  that  are  harvested 
in  a  season.  This  region  is  steadily  increasing  in  importance, 
and  a  market  is  rapidly  being  built  up  for  alfalfa  honey. 
In  this  region,  honey-production  is  conducted  chiefly  by 
extensive  beekeepers. 

(3)  The  south-eastern  region,  which  varies  greatly  in  the 
sources  of  honey  throughout  its  extent,  and  which  is  an 
area  of  abundant  rainfall,  lies  south  of  the  white  clover 
region  and  extends  west  to  eastern  Texas.  The  various 
rather  distinct  subdivisions  of  this  territory  might  well  be 
placed  among  the  restricted  honey  regions,  except  that 
certain  things  in  common  in  the  honey-flows  make  the  same 
type  of  manipulations  necessary.  Among  the  important 
plants  of  this  district  are  sourwood,  cotton,  tulip  poplar, 
tupelo,  manchineel,  mangrove,  titi,  palmettos,  citrus  trees, 
gallberry  and  partridge  pea,  with  nectar  from  clovers  in 
some  sections  in  favorable  seasons.  Sweet  clover  is  valu- 
able in  some  localities.  Most  of  the  honeys  are  amber, 
and  the  chief  characteristic  of  this  region  is  a  succession  of 
honey-flows,  often  intergrading.  The  honey-flows  are  usually 
not  rapid.  This  region  is  therefore  best  adapted  to  extracted- 
honey  production.  Swarming  is  much  less  troublesome 
than  in  the  North.  Beekeeping  is  developing  in  this  region, 
but  there  is  opportunity  for  many  more  beekeepers,  there 
being  now  relatively  few  who  rank  as  professionals.  Colonies 
of  bees  may  usually  be  bought  at  low  prices  in  box-hives. 
This  region  is  perhaps  the  best  in  the  United  States  for 
commercial  queen-rearing,  except  in  parts  of  Florida  where 
dragon  flies  are  troublesome. 

The  diversity  of  conditions  in  this  region  is  well  shown 
in  the  accompanying  map  (Fig.  95),  which  was  prepared  by 
E.  G.  Baldwin,  De  Land,  Florida,  who  has  studied  the  bee- 
keeping possibilities  of  his  State  quite  thoroughly.  It 
will  be  seen  that  the  sources  of  nectar  are  quite  distinct 
geographically.  The  geographical  position  of  this  State 
and  the  diversity  of  soil  and  climatic  conditions  strongly 
influence  the  growth  of  the  honey  plants.     In  this  State 


210 


Beekeeping 


two  localities  only  a  few  miles  apart  may  be  quite  unlike, 
when  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  the  beekeeper.  This  is 
also  true  in  many  other  parts  of  the  United  States. 

(4)  The  semi-arid  region  of  the  south-west  is  located  chiefly 
in  the  arid  and  semi-arid  parts  of  Texas  and  Arizona  and 
here  too  the  honey  plants  are  of  somewhat  restricted  dis- 
tribution. Among 
the  plants  which 
are  important  to 
the  beekeeper  are 
mesquite,  horse- 
mint,  catclaw, 
huisache  and 
guajilla.  Most  of 
the  honey  pro- 
duced  in  this 
region  is  ex- 
tracted, although 
a  large  number 
of  beekeepers  pro- 
duce bulk  comb- 
honey  (chunk 
honey),  cut  from 
large  combs  (with- 
out sections)  and  placed  in  cans  in  which  extracted-honey 
has  been  poured  to  fill  the  spaces.  Such  honey  is  usually 
sold  locally.  Beekeeping  in  this  region  is  largely  in  the 
hands  of  professional  beekeepers. 

(5)  The  sage  region  is  confined  to  the  canons  of  southern 
California  and  should  be  considered  a  restricted  region 
except  for  the  fact  that  sage  honey  wields  so  important  an 
influence  on  the  honey  market  that  the  region  may  justly 
be  placed  among  those  of  major  importance.  The  various 
sages  are  all  heavy  yielders  under  favorable  conditions  and 
there  is  usually  no  other  honey  source  of  importance  where 
this  honey  is  produced.  The  influence  of  rainfall  on  the 
honey  crop  of  this  region  is  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  honey 


Fig.  95.  —  Map  of  Florida, 
showing  distribution  of 
honey  plants. 


Regional  Differences  within  the  United  States     211 

sources.  If  the  crops  of  sage  honey  were  uniformly  heavy, 
this  would  be  an  ideal  region  for  comb-honey  production, 
for  sage  honey  is  mild  in  flavor,  water-white  and  does  not 
easily  granulate.  However,  successful  comb-honey  pro- 
duction necessitates  a  rapid  flow,  which  often  fails  to  appear 
in  this  region  and  most  of  the  honey  is  extracted.  Here  too 
there  are  many  professional  beekeepers,  although  a  consid- 
erable number  are  not  modern  in  their  methods  of  manipu- 
lation and  equipment. 

In  addition  to  the  geographical  limits  ascribed  to  these 
main  regions,  other  localities  situated  outside  the  prescribed 
boundaries  might  well  be  included  with  certain  of  the  gen- 
eral regions  in  discussing  the  type  of  flow.  For  example, 
California,  north  of  the  sage  region,  is  comparable  with  the 
South,  and  along  the  Pacific  coast  to  the  north  there  are 
localities  which  belong  to  the  white  clover  region. 

Restricted  regions. 

In  addition  to  the  more  general  divisions  named,  there 
are  other  localities  with  special  advantages  for  the  beekeeper, 
but  more  limited  in  extent,  which  lie  within  the  boundaries 
of  the  main  divisions.  As  previously  mentioned,  the  south- 
eastern region  is  virtually  composed  of  a  number  of  such 
restricted  regions.  The  list  here  given  will  be  recognized 
as  incomplete  and  is  intended  merely  as  a  suggestion.  Many 
more  restricted  regions  will  be  recognized  from  the  discus- 
sion of  the  sources  of  nectar.  Among  the  more  important 
limited  regions  may  be  mentioned  those  in  which  the  fol- 
lowing plants  secrete  nectar. 

(1)  Buckwheat.  —  The  honey  of  this  plant  is  dark  and  of 
strong  flavor,  suitable  chiefly  for  manufacturing  purposes. 
The  variation  in  the  secretion  of  nectar  from  buckwheat 
has  been  mentioned. 

(2)  Sumac.  —  Valuable  locally  in  New  England.  Another 
species  of  the  same  genus  yields  a  surplus  in  limited  areas 
in  Georgia. 

(3)  Spanish  needle  (numerous  species). — Heavy  yielders 


212  Beekeeping 

of  amber  honey  in  the  autumn  in  swamps.  Among  the  best- 
known  regions  in  which  these  plants  are  of  value  may  be 
mentioned  the  lower  Delaware  River  and  Illinois  River 
valleys  and  the  Kankakee  swamp. 

(4)  Willowherb.  —  Important  in  northern  Michigan  in 
burned  over  forest  areas. 

(5)  Sweet  clover.  —  In  some  sections,  especially  in  lime- 
stone regions,  this  plant  is  exceptionally  abundant  and  is  the 
source  of  large  crops  of  honey  of  a  slightly  greenish  color. 
It  is  especially  valuable  in  northern  Kentucky  and  southern 
Indiana. 

(6)  Blue  thistle.  —  Important  in  the  Shenandoah  valley. 

(7)  Raspberry.  —  Northern  Michigan  where  the  forests 
have  been  burned  over  and  in  parts  of  New  York. 

(8)  Beans.  —  In  southern  California,  where  beans  of 
various  kinds  are  grown  in  great  quantity,  beekeepers  find 
it  profitable 'to  move  their  apiaries  to  the  bean  fields  after 
the  sage  honey-flow.  The  honey  is  white,  of  excellent  flavor 
and  granulates  quickly. 

(9)  Heartsease.  —  Mississippi  valley.  A  heavy  yielder 
of  nectar  in  late  summer. 

Variation  within  a  region. 

It  must  not  be  understood  that  the  territory  within  either 
a  general  or  a  restricted  region  as  here  defined  is  equally 
good  throughout.  The  cutting  of  forests,  the  extensive 
cultivation  of  some  plant  which  restricts  the  growth  of 
honey  plants,  local  differences  in  soil  or  drainage,  the  pres- 
ence of  large  towns  and  a  multitude  of  other  factors  may  so 
reduce  the  number  of  individual  honey  plants  where  they 
would  normally  grow  as  to  make  extensive  beekeeping  un- 
profitable. On  the  other  hand,  the  cutting  of  forests  may 
make  a  region  better  by  allowing  a  honey  plant  to  spread 
(e.g.  willowherb)  or  the  planting  of  some  nectar-yielding 
species,  either  under  cultivation  {e.g.  alsike  clover,  alfalfa) 
or  in  waste  places  (e.g.  sweet  clover),  may  greatly  increase 
the  value  of  a  region  to  the  beekeeper.    In  fact,  the  entire 


Regional  Differences  within  the  United  States     213 

alfalfa  region  is  a  man-made  honey  region.  These  factors, 
many  of  which  are  due  to  human  interference  with  the  natural 
environment,  must  be  considered  in  choosing  locations  of 
apiaries  and  in  manipulating  colonies. 

Climatic  influences  may  change  an  area  from  year  to 
year.  A  lack  of  sufficient  rainfall,  for  example,  may  kill 
white  clover  in  certain  areas  and  not  in  others.  This  occurred 
during  1914,  when  a  severe  drought  killed  clover  over  much 
of  Illinois,  while  an  abundance  of  rain  fell  in  northern  por- 
tions of  the  State,  there  being  marked  differences  in  localities 
only  a  few  miles  apart. 

DISTRIBUTION    OF   BEES    IN   THE   UNITED    STATES 

The  relative  importance  of  the  various  honey  regions  is 
indicated  by  the  number  of  colonies  of  bees  found  in  each 
one,  although  care  must  be  exercised  in  examining  these 
data  to  avoid  misinterpretation.  The  only  source  of  informa- 
tion on  this  subject  is  the  United  States  Census,  and  the 
data  from  this  source  are  not  complete.  However,  while 
the  number  of  colonies  reported  is  far  too  low,  it  may  per- 
haps be  assumed  that  approximately  the  same  percentage 
is  omitted  throughout  the  United  States.  The  accompany- 
ing map  (Fig.  96)  was  prepared  in  the  Bureau  of  Crop  Esti- 
mates of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  from  data  furnished 
by  the  Census  of  1910  and  the  author  is  indebted  to  this 
Bureau  for  permission  to  use  it  here.  In  this  map  will  be 
found  a  dot  for  each  county  where  bees  are  kept,  the  size 
of  the  dot  being  proportionate  to  the  number  of  colonies 
reported. 

In  the  white  clover  region,  it  is  evident  that  the  more 
northern  localities  are  most  thoroughly  stocked  with  bees. 
In  the  alfalfa  region  bees  are  less  abundant,  and  this  is  true 
also  in  the  sage  region.  The  amount  of  honey  produced  in 
these  regions  is  far  below  that  of  the  moist  regions  of  the 
country,  but  the  honey  goes  to  market  in  large  shipments, 
because  of  the  larger  number  of  specialist  beekeepers,  and 


214 


Beekeeping 


52  *  i^^^s^^sl^^^-^^^^s^^'^l^^al?!  ^s 


12  it 


;^^(<5N]n)t<50,!6io-jO,10*|JN  §^ 


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{feiaiiiiia 


Regional  Differences  within  the  United  States     215 

as  a  result  these  crops  are  important  in  determining  the 
wholesale  price  of  honey. 

The  enormous  number  of  colonies  in  the  southern  States 
is  a  surprise.  In  the  fifteen  States  usually  included  in  the 
division  of  southern  States  are  found  forty-five  per  cent  of  all 
the  colonies  in  the  United  States.  In  this  region  the  box- 
hive  and  the  farmer-beekeeper  are  still  found  in  large  num- 
bers, there  being  few  specialiots  except  in  Texas.  Because 
the  industry  has  not  developed  on  modern  lines,  most  of 
the  honey  from  the  South  does  not  reach  the  larger  centers 
of  distribution,  and  it  therefore  has  little  influence  on  the 
wholesale  honey  markets.  The  number  of  colonies  of  bees 
found  in  the  South  is  proof  of  the  wonderful  opportunities 
for  the  development  of  the  industry,  for  many  of  these  colo- 
nies are  given  no  attention.  As  one  beekeeper  expresses 
it,  these  bees  would  die,  if  they  could,  to  escape  the  ill-treat- 
ment to  which  they  are  subjected,  but  the  environment  is 
so  favorable  that  they  increase  in  spite  of  mismanagement. 

Attention  should  also  be  called  to  the  larger  number  of 
colonies  in  southern  New  York  and  northern  Pennsylvania, 
where  buckwheat  is  plentiful.  The  other  restricted  honey 
regions  seem  to  have  less  influence  on  the  number  of  colonies. 

This  map  will  repay  considerable  study  in  connection 
with  other  phases  of  beekeeping.  To  one  familiar  with 
the  distribution  of  the  diseases  of  the  brood  of  bees  in  the 
United  States  ^  it  is  clear  that  there  has  been  a  severe  loss 
from  this  cause,  as  indicated  by  the  smaller  dots  in  regions 
where  diseases  are  most  prevalent.  New  England  was 
formerly  well  stocked  with  bees,  but  many  colonies  have  been 
destroyed  by  disease.  Certain  areas  in  Pennsylvania,  Ohio 
and  Indiana,  where  disease  is  abundant,  are  inadequately 
provided  with  bees.  One  important  reason  for  the  larger 
number  of  colonies  in  the  South  is  probably  the  scarcity  of 
disease. 

1  Phillips,  E.  F.,  1911.  The  occurrence  of  bee  diseases  in  the  United 
States  (Preliminary  report).  Circular  No.  138,  Bureau  of  Entomology, 
25  pp. 


216  Beekeeping 


MIGRATORY  BEEKEEPING 

By  this  expression  beekeepers  designate  the  moving  of 
apiaries  from  place  to  place  during  a  single  summer  to  take 
advantage  of  two  or  more  honey-flows  which  do  not  occur 
in  a  single  locality.  This  has  been  practiced  since  ancient 
times,  and  most  extensive  beekeepers  cherish  the  hope  that 
some  day  the  subject  may  be  sufficiently  understood  so 
that  they  may  move  their  bees  several  times  a  season  and 
thereby  keep  them  working  almost  all  the  year.  Some 
elaborate  plans  have  been  made  for  moving  bees  from  south 
to  north  as  the  seasons  advance,  but  most  of  the  trials  have 
been  failures.  Since  success  in  beekeeping  depends  on  an 
intimate  knowledge  of  the  honey  sources  of  the  locahty  and 
of  the  best  manipulations  to  obtain  maxirqium  crops,  such 
migratory  beekeeping  would  necessitate  detailed  knowledge 
of  many  sections,  so  that  the  beekeeper  may  know  when 
and  where  to  move  his  colonies  to  advantage. 

The  Mississippi  River  has  long  been  considered  an  ideal 
avenue  for  transporting  colonies  in  migratory  beekeeping, 
especially  since  there  is  no  better  way  to  ship  colonies  than 
by  boat.  It  has  been  propose'd  that  the  beekeeper  place 
his  apiary  on  a  flatboat  in  the  South  in  early  spring  and 
move  northward  by  night,  allowing  his  bees  to  gather  nectar 
by  day,  and  following  the  season  as  it  extends  northward. 
This  plan  so  well  illustrates  the  limitations  of  migratory 
beekeeping  that  it  may  be  critically  examined.  One  of  the 
chief  difficulties  is  the  fact  that  the  beekeeper  must  know 
just  where  to  anchor  after  each  move  so  that  his  bees  will 
be  in  range  of  the  best  forage  and  this  would  involve  too 
careful  a  study  of  the  valley  to  make  the  plan  practical. 
This  objection  might  be  overcome  but  there  is  a  more  funda- 
mental difficulty  which  has  not  been  sufficiently  considered 
by  those  who  have  cherished  this  dream.  If  one  species 
of  plant  furnished  the  main  nectar-flow  throughout  the 
Mississippi  valley,  the  beekeeper  could  move  northward 
to  prolong  the  gathering  period,  but  this  is  not  the  case. 


Regional  Differences  within  the  United  States    217 

There  are  many  plants  which  furnish  nectar  in  the  various 
portions  in  the  valley  and  if  the  apiary  were  moved 
northward  the  bees  often  would  leave  behind  them  a  honey- 
flow  from  another  source.  If  migratory  beekeeping  from 
south  to  north  and  then  back  south  with  the  closing  season 
proves  successful  it  will  probably  be  within  the  nectar-secret- 
ing area  of  a  single  species  of  plant  or  perhaps  of  two  species, 
one  for  each  direction  of  the  journey.  The  Mississippi  River 
plan  was  tried  several  years  ago  on  a  rather  extensive  scale 
without  success. 

The  experiment  of  moving  an  apiary  south  for  the  winter 
for  the  purpose  of  making  increase  has  recently  been  tried. 
If  one  is  raising  bees  for  sale  and  has  a  heavy  demand  for 
colonies  that  may  pay  but  the  chances  of  success  in  following 
this  plan  for  honey-production  are  small. 

The  limitations  of  migratory  beekeeping,  in  so  far  as 
present  successes  indicate  them,'-have  not  been  previously 
pointed  out.  They  are  approximately  as  follows :  The 
movement  of  bees  must  not  be  from  one  general  region  to 
another,  as  from  the  white  clover  region  to  the  alfalfa  region, 
but  from  a  location  where  the  flora  is  that  of  the  general 
region  to  a  restricted  region  where  the  honej^-flow  comes  at  a 
different  time,  usually  later.  For  example,  it  has  been  found 
profitable  to  practice  the  following  plans  in  migratory  bee- 
keeping :  (1)  from  white  clover  to  sweet  clover,  buckwheat, 
Spanish  needle  or  heartsease,  (2)  from  sage  to  bean  or  (3) 
from  one  of  the  restricted  regions  in  the  South  to  another. 
As  previously  mentioned,  the  honey-flow  at  the  temporary 
out-apiary  usually  comes  after  the  main  honey-flow  at  the 
permanent  apiary.  In  most  such  cases,  the  conditions 
demand  the  production  of  extracted-honey,  as  comb-honey 
production  and  migratory  beekeeping  are  not  well  suited 
to  each  other. 

In  considering  the  possibility  of  migratory  beekeeping 
it  must  be  decided  whether  it  is  desirable  to  move  the  bees 
or  simply  the  beekeeper.  In  other  words,  if  the  trip  is  a 
long  one  involving  considerable  expense  and  danger  of  loss 


218  Beekeeping 

in  moving  a  large  number  of  colonies,  it  may  be  cheaper  or 
easier  for  the  beekeeper  to  own  two  or  more  lots  of  bees  and 
supplies.  The  expense  of  transportation  and  the  danger 
involved  are  probably  the  factors  which  determine  the  feasi- 
bility of  moving  from  south  to  north  or  from  sage  in  Cali- 
fornia to  alfalfa  in  Utah  or  Colorado.  In  the  South,  espe- 
cially where  bees  can  be  purchased  at  a  low  price,  it  would 
not  seem  profitable  to  move  apiaries  over  long  distances. 
The  shipping  of  bees  in  wire-cloth  cages  may  in  the  future 
remove  the  present  limitations. 

It  would  certainly  seem  that  a  northern  beekeeper  is 
not  embracing  all  his  opportunities  if  he  quits  work  when  his 
bees  can  no  longer  get  nectar,  while  there  are  still  hundreds 
of  places  in  the  South  or  even  in  the  tropics  where  he  might 
maintain  apiaries  with  profit  in  the  winter.  When  it  is 
recalled  that  the  professional  beekeeper  is  a  relatively  new 
factor  in  beekeeping,  it  may  still  be  expected  that  the  future 
development  of  the  industry  will  show  an  increase  in  migra- 
tory beekeeping,  or  at  least  in  migratory  beekeepers. 

OVERSTOCKING 

The  bugbear  of  the  specialist  beekeeper  is  the  fear  that  he 
will  overstock  his  localities,  that  is,  place  in  each  apiary  so 
many  colonies  that  there  will  not  be  enough  nectar  available 
to  permit  the  colonies  to  store  approximately  the  maximum 
profitable  surplus.  Since  there  are  few  places  in  the  United 
States  that  are  now  overstocked,  this  subject  worries  the 
beekeeper  more  than  the  facts  warrant.  Some  beekeepers 
have  found  it  practical  to  keep  several  hundred  colonies  in 
one  apiary.  E.  W.  Alexander,  Delanson,  New  York,  found 
it  more  profitable,  in  an  exceptionally  good  buckwheat 
region,  to  keep  over  700  colonies  in  one  yard  than  to  establish 
out-apiaries.  In  the  South  and  West  large  apiaries  are  not 
infrequent. 

While  it  is  desirable  to  keep  bees  in  as  few  places  as  possi- 
ble to  avoid  duplication  of  apparatus  and  time  lost  in  trans- 


Regional  Differences  within  the  United  States    219 

portation,  there  is  another  factor  to  be  considered.  The 
size  of  an  apiary  should  be  determined  chiefly  by  the  number 
of  colonies  that  the  beekeeper  can  manipulate  in  a  single  day 
during  the  honey-flow.  If  he  finds  that  he  can  usually  care 
for  seventy-five  colonies  in  a  day  under  his  system  of  manage- 
ment, then  that  number  is  ideal  for  his  apiaries.  He  can 
then  arrange  his  out-apiaries  so  that  each  will  receive  a 
visit  as  frequently  as  the  conditions  demand.  The  amount 
of  work  that  can  be  done  in  a  day  will  increase  with  experi- 
ence and  the  out-apiaries  correspondingly  may  be  increased 
in  size,  for  they  should  be  large  enough  to  furnish  a  full 
day's  work,  unless  there  is  some  means  of  rapid  transporta- 
tion available.  With  modern  transportation  facilities  the 
distance  to  out-yards  is  of  less  importance  than  formerly 
and  many  beekeepers  now  have  motor  trucks  to  carry  an 
extracting  outfit  and  other  apparatus  and  suppUes  from  one 
apiary  to  another.  Considering  the  day's  work  as  the  deter- 
mining factor  in  the  size  of  the  apiary,  the  out-apiaries  may 
be  more  numerous  and  closer  together  than  would  be  the  case 
if  each  yard  were  increased  to  the  maximum.  In  the  present 
undeveloped  condition  of  the  beekeeping  industry  and  with 
so  many  localities  almost  untouched  by  bees,  it  is  not  wise 
to  run  any  risk  of  overstocking.  The  location  of  out- 
apiaries  should  be  determined  by  the  available  forage,  the 
minimum  distance  between  them  usually  being  determined 
by  the  distance  that  bees  can  fly. 

DADANT  OUT-APIARIES 

To  illustrate  the  problem  which  confronts  the  beekeeper 
in  the  establishment  of  out-apiaries  there  is  here  reproduced 
a  map  (Fig.  97),  made  from  one  by  C.  P.  Dadant,  Hamilton, 
Illinois,  of  the  apiaries  near  his  home  in  1891.  He  then 
owned  the  Home,  Sherwood,  Villemain  and  Sack  apiaries, 
the  other  four  shown  being  apiaries  of  other  beekeepers. 
All  of  these  are  located  on  land  sloping  toward  the  Mississippi 
River.     The  Sherwood  apiary  was  the  best,  giving  crops  in 


220 


Beekeeping 


the  spring  and  fall.  The  Villemain  apiary  appears  to  have 
been  in  the  poorest  location,  the  range  of  the  bees  being 
restricted  by  the  river,  but  it  was  near  the  only  basswcod 
grove  in  the  country  and  the  bees  gathered  honey  in  the  fall 
from  the  islands.     The  Sack  apiary  seems  to  have  been  too 

near  other  apiaries  but  was 
actually  second  only  to  the 
Sherwood  yard.  The  bees 
did  not  work  more  than  a 
mile  along  the  bluff  but  went 
three  miles  to  the  river, 
having  the  bottom  lands 
covered  with  fall  flowers 
within  their  range  of  flight. 
They  were  separated  from 
the  adjacent  apiaries  by  hills 
and  timber.  The  two  small 
circles  show  sites  of  former 
apiaries,  used  before  the 
Sherwood  apiary  was  estab- 
lished. The  bees  in  the 
home  apiary  were  only  a 
mile  and  a  half  from  abun- 
dant pasturage  on  an  island 
but  did  not  reach  it,  although 
they  sometimes  went  two 
miles  or  more  in  another  di- 
rection. 


cAMcy/rso 


Fig.  97,  —  Map  showing  distribution 
of  Dadant  apiaries,  Hamilton,  111. 


This  description  of  conditions  in  1891  ^  may  not  represent 
the  condition  of  the  Dadant  apiaries  to-day.  The  map, 
however,  shows  the  locations  decided  upon  in  that  region  by 
an  experienced  beekeeper  who  had  kept  bees  in  that  district 
for  twenty  years.  It  shows  that  distance  from  one  apiary 
to  the  next  is  not  the  sole  consideration  but  that  contour 
of  the  land,  timber  tracts  and  other  barriers  must  be  taken 


1  Dadant,   C.   P.,    1891.     Arrangement   of   out-apiaries. 
Bee  Culture,  XIX,  pp.  60-61. 


Gleanings  in 


f 


Regional  Differences  within  the  United  States    221 

into  account.  Similar  maps  and  descriptions  of  out-apiaries 
appeared  in  the  same  journal  at  about  the  same  time,  one 
of  the  apiaries  of  E.  France,  Platteville,  Wisconsin,  and 
another  from  A.  E.  Manum,  Bristol,  Vermont.  The  effect 
of  contour  of  the  land  is  especially  well  illustrated  in  the 
Manum  map.  It  would  probably  profit  any  extensive  bee- 
keeper who  has  several  out-apiaries  to  make  a  similar  map 
of  his  region,  especially  if  he  includes  the  honey  sources. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  FIRST  STEPS  IN  BEEKEEPING 

Many  persons  begin  beekeeping  accidentally.  The  in- 
terest of  many  of  the  present  beekeepers  in  the  honeybee 
has  first  been  aroused  by  a  swarm  passing  over  the  premises 
or  perhaps  lighting  on  a  tree  near  by.  The  desire  not  to  allow 
anything  to  go  to  waste  or  not  to  allow  a  valuable  article  to 
elude  him,  coupled  perhaps  with  a  dare-devil  impulse  to 
risk  a  combat,  has  induced  many  a  man  or  woman  to  attempt 
to  hive  the  stray  swarm.  Or  perhaps  there  is  a  temptation 
to  exhibit  one's  prowess  before  the  other  members  of  the 
family.  Having  hived  the  swarm  in  a  box  or  barrel  with 
no  loss  of  life  or  limb  —  and  bees  are  never  easier  to  handle 
than  when  swarming  —  it  is  by  easy  steps  that  one  goes  on 
until  an  attack  of  what  is  commonly  known  as  "  bee-fever" 
has  developed,  from  which  recovery  seems  hopeless.  If  a 
swarm  is  caught  and  put  into  a  box,  the  owner  should  obtain 
a  modern  hive  as  soon  as  practical  and  lodge  his  new  posses- 
sion in  a  home  where  they  may  be  manipulated.  The  neces- 
sary equipment  is  discussed  in  Chapter  II. 

Purchase  of  colonies. 

There  are  those,  however,  who  decide  to  begin  beekeeping 
without  this  accidental  impulse.  The  desirability  of  begin- 
ning on  a  small  scale  may  be  again  emphasized  here.  Colonies 
should  if  possible  always  be  purchased  near  at  hand  to  pre- 
vent the  loss  which  may  follow,  especially  if  colonies  must 
be  transported  by  inexperienced  persons.  The  further 
advantage  in  this  procedure  is  that  the  former  owner  may 
usually  be  induced  to  assist  in  the  moving  and  he  will  also 

222 


The  First  Steps  in  Beekeeping  223 

prove  helpful  in  the  early  days  with  the  bees.  It  is  best 
to  have  the  bees  already  housed  in  the  hive  which  is  to  be 
adopted  but  if  this  is  not  possible  then  colonies  in  any  hive 
or  in  boxes  or  barrels  may  be  purchased  and  transferred 
(p.  245).  Transferring  is  a  difficult  operation  for  a  novice, 
in  fact  it  is  not  relished  by  an  experienced  beekeeper,  and  is 
to  be  avoided.  Early  in  the  summer  is  usually  the  best 
time  for  making  the  start,  although  the  price  charged  for 
colonies  is  usually  higher  at  that  season.  There  is  less 
opportunity  for  making  such  mistakes  in  management  as 
will  result  in  loss  of  bees  during  the  first  few  months  of 
ownership  if  these  come  during  the  summer.  It  matters 
little  what  race  or  strain  of  bees  is  obtained  at  the  beginning 
except  that  it  is  desirable  to  avoid  bees  with  too  great  a 
percentage  of  black  blood  in  them,  such  bees  being  diffi- 
cult to  manipulate.  After  the  apiary  is  established  any 
desired  race  may  be  obtained  by  removing  the  queens  and 
replacing  them  with  mated  queens  purchased  from  com- 
mercial queen  breeders.  If  these  are  introduced  to  replace 
the  old  queens  of  the  colonies,  the  progeny  of  the  new  queens 
will  rapidly  replace  the  offspring  of  the  discarded  ones  as 
they  die  from  natural  causes. 

Purchase  of  bees  to  he  shipped  from  a  distance. 

Another  method  of  buying  bees  which  is  growing  in  favor 
is  to  buy  them  by  weight,  without  frames.  Bees  are  now 
easily  shipped  in  cages  specially  constructed  for  the  purpose, 
even  though  the  journey  require  several  days.  By  this 
method  the  possibility  of  carrying  some  brood  disease  is 
obviated  and  there  is  less  likelihood  of  damage  to  the  bees 
by  the  breaking  or  melting  of  combs  or  by  suffocation  during 
the  journey.  Nuclei  or  small  colonies  with  frames  may  also 
be  shipped  a  considerable  distance.  These  will  usually 
build  up  to  full  colonies  during  the  season  if  bought  early, 
but  of  course  surplus  honey  can  scarcely  be  expected  the 
first  year  from  such  a  small  colony.  Still  another  plan  is  to 
buy  an  empty  hive  and  leave  it  with  some  beekeeper  so 


224  Beekeeping 

that  a  swarm  may  be  hived  in  it,  after  which  it  is  removed 
to  the  desired  location. 

Requirements  in  purchased  colonies. 

If  there  is  opportunity  to  examine  the  colonies  before 
purchasing  them,  there  are  several  important  things  which 
should  be  insisted  upon :  (1)  get  as  little  drone  comb  or 
crooked  or  defective  comb  as  possible ;  (2)  see  that  the 
colony  is  free  from  disease  (p.  397) ;  (3)  the  colony  should 
be  provided  with  plenty  of  honey  and  (4)  the  amount  cf 
brood  should  be  adequate  for  the  time  of  year.  It  is  perhaps 
asking  too  much  of  the  beginner  to  expect  him  to  determine 
whether  disease  is  present  in  colonies  purchased.  In  many 
states  and  counties  there  are  official  apiary  inspectors  whose 
duty  it  is  to  give  advice  on  the  subject  of  disease  and  these 
men  may  be  asked  to  assist  in  this  work.  At  any  rate, 
even  the  novice  can  tell  whether  there  is  any  dead  or  dis- 
colored brood  and  it  is  at  least  safe  not  to  accept  colonies 
in  which  any  discolored  brood  is  found,  normal  brood  being 
pearly  white.  Formerly  the  sale  of  bees  was  believed  to 
bring  ill-luck  and  the  customary  way  to  acquire  colonies 
was  to  go  at  night  to  the  apiary  and  after  the  removal  of 
the  colony,  to  leave  coins  to  the  value  of  the  bees  on  an 
adjacent  hive.  The  possibility  of  an  insufficient  pile  of 
coins  or  perhaps  none  at  all  is  probably  a  factor  in  causing 
modern  beekeepers  to  prefer  to  sell  bees  according  to  pres- 
ent-day methods.  The  beginner  can  scarcely  be  advised 
to  adopt  the  ancient  manner,  for  the  custom  might  be  found 
faulty  when  explained  to  a  magistrate. 

How  to  learn  beekeeping. 

To  acquire  skill  in  manipulating  bees  and  to  learn  the 
proper  management  of  the  apiary  so  as  to  obtain  maximum 
results,  the  best  method  is  to  spend  some  time  in  the  apiary 
of  an  experienced  beekeeper.  If  one  contemplates  making 
beekeeping  an  important  part  of  the  occupation,  this  is 
especially  to  be  desired.     It  is  usually  possible  to  arrange 


The  First  Steps  in  Beekeeping  225 

for  employment  at  a  small  wage  in  the  apiary  of  a  specialist 
for  a  season.  Not  all  extensive  beekeepers,  however, 
manipulate  their  bees  well  and  many  of  them  fail  to  get  the 
maximum  returns  through  faulty  systems,  especially  in 
comb-honey  production,  but  after  some  experience  in  such 
an  apiary  the  prospective  beekeeper  is  better  able  to  read 
the  details  of  manipulations  understandingly,  and  he  can 
correct  in  his  own  practice  the  mistakes  which  may  have 
been  taught  him  by  his  teacher. 

Value  of  reading. 

The  many  books  on  bees  all  have  points  of  merit  and 
reading  the  various  journals  devoted  to  beekeeping  is  to  be 
commended.  Reading  alone  does  not  make  a  beekeeper. 
The  "book-beekeeper"  may  be  well  informed  concerning 
the  behavior  of  bees  and  may  know  the  different  systems  of 
management  so  that  he  can  discuss  them  in  detail,  but  only 
by  practice  do  these  things  become  an  actual  part  of  his 
beekeeping  equipment. 

Merits  of  beekeeping  courses. 

A  good  way  to  learn  beekeeping  is  to  attend  some  school 
where  a  thorough  course  in  this  subject  is  given.  Until 
recently  beekeeping  was  not  included  in  the  work  of  the 
agricultural  colleges  in  the  United  States,  but  interest  is 
now  being  aroused  in  this  work  and  it  is  spreading  in  a 
manner  to  give  deep  satisfaction  to  those  interested  in  the 
development  of  the  industry.  In  the  apiary  of  an  experi- 
enced beekeeper,  the  beginner  perhaps  gets  more  personal 
attention  than  he  does  in  a  class,  but  usually  in  the  rush  of 
honey-production,  the  theoretical  side  of  the  work  is  neg- 
lected and  frequently  the  beekeeper  is  not  able  to  offer  much 
help  to  his  student  on  such  subjects.  Consequently  when  he 
begins  to  keep  bees  for  himself,  he  may  find  local  conditions 
quite  unlike  those  in  the  apiary  in  which  he  worked  and, 
not  knowing  the  fundamental  facts  about  bees,  he  may  be 
at  a  loss  to  know  what  to  do.     In  a  regular  course  of  study, 

Q 


226  Beekeeping 

the  proper  emphasis  may  be  placed  on  the  various  subjects, 
although  naturally  there  is  less  opportunity  for  practice 
with  the  bees.  The  ideal  plan  is  to  take  the  prescribed 
course  and  then  spend  the  following  summer  in  the  apiary 
of  the  best  beekeeper  available.  The  student  is  then  able 
to  understand  more  clearly  what  he  sees  and  hears  and  is 
better  able  to  recognize  and  perhaps  mentally  to  condemn 
the  little  peculiarities  in  practice  which  one  encounters 
occasionally  in  the  manipulations  of  practical  beekeepers. 
If  the  teaching  of  beekeeping  is  conducted  wisely,  it  should 
result  not  only  in  increased  knowledge  of  bees,  but  in  the 
training  of  more  professional  beekeepers. 

Beginner^ s  outfit. 

It  is  only  with  experience  that  one  is  able  to  judge  of  the 
comparative  merits  of  different  hives  and  other  equipment, 
but  the  beginner  usually  desires  definite  information  con- 
cerning the  equipment  which  should  be  purchased.  The 
giving  of  such  advice  is  attended  with  some  risk,  for  one 
hesitates  to  advise  an  equipment  which  may  be  discarded 
when  the  beekeeper  becomes  more  familiar  with  the  business. 
In  the  following  lists,  the  choice  is  made  on  the  basis  of  the 
equipment  which  is  preferred  by  the  majority  of  good  bee- 
keepers and  not  alone  on  the  author's  personal  preferences. 

General  equipment :  — 

Bee  veil. 

Smoker  —  medium  size. 

Gloves  (for  the  beginner  only). 

Some  kind  of  hive  tool  —  a  screwdriver  will  answer. 

For  each  colony :  — 

Bottom  board  of  I  inch  material. 

lO-frame  Langstroth  hive  —  preferably  single-walled. 

Self-spacing  frames,  punched  for  wiring. 

Medium  brood  foundation,  li  lb.  for  each  hive  body. 

Telescope  cover. 


The  First  Steps  in  Beekeeping  227 

For  comb-honey  production  (minimum) :  — 

3  supers  for  10-frame  hive  (if  possible  one  made  up  for  sample). 

The  4i  inches  square    section,  H    inches  wide,  is  usually 

preferred.     The  purchase  of  only  one  super  to  the  colony  is 

to  be  condemned. 
Thin  foundation,  2  oz.  to  super.      For   the  beginner   the  use 

of   small   starters   of    foundation   is    sometimes   preferable. 

If  full  sheets  are  used,  8  oz.  to  the  super  should  be  provided. 

For  extracted-honey  production :  — 

2  extra  hive  bodies  identical  with  those  used  in  brood  chamber, 

with  full  sheets  of   comb-foundation  (see  p.  28  concerning 

spacing  devices  in  surplus  chambers). 
1  2-frame  non-reversible  extractor. 
1  Bingham  uncapping  knife. 

For  bulk  comb-honey  production  :  — 

3  10-frame  supers  with  shallow  extracting  frames. 
^  lb.  thin-super  foundation  for  each  super. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  APIARY  SITE 

In  the  establishment  of  a  commercial  apiary,  the  chief 
requisite  is  proximity  to  the  sources  of  nectar.  To  fulfill 
this,  it  is  essential  that  the  honey  resources  of  the  region  be 
studied  carefully.  While  it  is  possible  to  keep  bees  in  almost 
all  of  the  habitable  parts  of  the  United  States,  it  is  not  every- 
where profitable  to  practice  extensive  beekeeping,  so  that  if 
one  contemplates  making  honey- production  a  major  portion 
of  his  business,  it  is  best  to  go  to  the  best  available  location 
rather  than  to  struggle  along  in  a  mediocre  locality.  A 
second  requisite  is  ease  of  transportation  to  the  apiary  and 
to  market. 

Apiary  grounds. 

In  the  North,  a  plot  of  ground  sloping  to  the  south  or 
east  is  usually  preferable  and  in  any  region  it  is  advisable 
to  face  the  apiary  so  as  to  protect  the  entrances  of  the  hives 
from  the  prevailing  winds.  If  the  contour  of  the  land  or  a 
near-by  forest  does  not  afford  protection  from  the  wind,  a 
windbreak  may  be  planted.  A  row  of  evergreens  is  efficient 
in  the  North  and  is  serviceable  in  winter  when  it  is  most 
needed.  A  solid  fence  or  building  is  less  desirable,  since 
such  a  windbreak,  instead  of  breaking  the  force  of  the  wind, 
often  simply  deflects  the  currents  into  the  midst  of  the  apiary 
with  disastrous  results.  In  moist  regions,  a  slope  is  desirable 
for  drainage.  The  hives  should  be  so  placed  that  they 
receive  sunlight  in  the  early  morning.  This  is  helpful  in 
winter  and  perhaps  equally  so  in  summer  as  it  starts  the 
bees  to  the  field  earlier,  so  that  they  get  the  nectar  from 

228 


The  Apiary  Site  229 

plants  which  furnish  it  only  in  the  mornings.  If  possible, 
the  apiary  should  not  be  near  the  public  road  and  should 
be  situated  where  the  bees  will  not  prove  a  nuisance  to 
passers-by  or  sting  live-stock.  If  the  only  convenient  loca- 
tion is  near  the  road,  the  line  of  flight  of  the  bees  may  be 
deflected  upwards  by  a  high  hedge  or  a  solid  fence,  for  after 
they  fly  over  such  an  obstruction  they  will  keep  above  the  line 
of  travel  on  the  road  and  will  not  molest  teams  or  pedestrians. 
This  is  an  important  consideration  as  bees  sometimes  sting 
horses  fatally.  The  apiary  should  preferably  be  located 
away  from  the  clothes-drying  yard  so  that  they  will  not  spot 
the  clothes  with  their  feces.  This  applies  especially  in  the 
North,  and  this  objection  may  largely  be  overcome  by  re- 
moving the  cellar-wintered  bees  when  no  clothes  are  to 
be  hung  out.  Perhaps  it  would  be  more  in  keeping  with  the 
usual  practice  to  advise  that  no  clothes  be  hung  out  just 
after  the  bees  have  been  placed  on  their  summer  stands. 
The  hives  should,  if  practicable,  occupy  the  higher  ground 
of  the  plot  chosen  for  the  apiary,  so  that  in  carrying  heavy 
supers  to  the  apiary  house  the  load  will  be  carried  downhill 
and  the  empty  supers  uphill.  Such  an  arrangement  will 
materially  reduce  the  labor  in  a  commercial  apiary. 

Exposure  to  the  sun. 

While  exposure  to  the  sun  is  to  be  advised  in  the  early 
morning,  it  is  often  well  to  protect  the  hives  from  the  sun 
in  the  middle  of  the  day,  so  that  the  bees  will  not  hang 
out  in  front  of  the  hive  and  to  prevent  the  melting  down  of 
combs.  On  the  other  hand,  too  dense  a  shade  is  not  advan- 
tageous and  usually  it  is  not  best  to  locate  an  apiary  in  woods. 
To  provide  shade,  the  hives  may  be  placed  in  two  rows  under 
a  shed  or  arbor  with  the  hive  entrances  to  the  outside  (Fig. 
98).  Such  sheds  usually  run  north  and  south,  but  in  hot, 
dry  countries  an  east  and  west  direction  is  sometimes  better. 
In  temperate  climates,  sheds  are  not  in  favor,  but  many 
beekeepers  use  shade-boards,  so  constructed  that  they 
extend  about  a  foot  in  all  directions  from  the  hive  except  to 


230 


Beekeeping 


the  north.  These  must  be  held  in  place  by  a  heavy  weight 
and  are  rather  objectionable  because  they  have  to  be  re- 
moved each  time  the  colony  is  manipulated. 

As  the  extreme  of  protection  from  the  sun's  rays  may  be 
mentioned  the  house  apiary,  in  which  the  entrances  to  the 
hives  are  through  holes  in  the  wall  of  a  specially  constructed 
house.  Such  arrangements  meet  with  little  favor  among 
American  beekeepers  because  of  the  difficulty  in  manipulat- 
ing the  colonies  inside  the  house.     In  Europe,  however,  the 

beekeepers  often 
construct  elabo- 
rately designed 
and  decorated 
house  apiaries 
(Fig.  8)  in  which 
an  American  com- 
mercial  bee- 
keeper would  find 
himself  seriously 
hindered. 

Care  of  the  apiary 
grounds. 

The  ground  on 
which  the  hives 
are  located  should  be  smooth  so  that  a  wheelbarrow  or  cart 
may  be  utilized  in  carrying  supplies  or  honey.  This  is  also 
desirable  if  a  lawnmower  is  used  to  keep  grass  and  weeds  from 
obstructing  the  entrances.  High  grass  about  the  entrances 
is  a  hindrance  to  the  bees  on  returning  to  the  hive  and 
should  be  avoided.  Few  commercial  beekeepers  find  time 
to  use  a  lawnmower  during  the  rush  season,  but  prefer  to 
lay  boards  in  front  of  the  hive  or  to  kill  the  grass  with 
salt.  It  is  sometimes  convenient  to  pasture  one  or  more 
sheep  in  the  apiary  inclosure.  Raising  the  hives  above  the 
grass  on  high  stands  is  another  solution  of  the  difficulty,  but 
is  not  desirable  in  a  heavy  flow  of  honey,  since  bees  often 


Fig.  98.  —  Apiary  in  the  West,  shaded  by  thatched 
shed. 


The  Apiary  Site 


231 


fall  to  the  ground  with  their  loads  and  since  the  stands  may 
break  down  under  the  weight  of  honey. 

Arrangement  of  hives. 

The  hives  may  be  variously  arranged   according   to  the 
preference  of  the  beekeeper.     Each  hive  should  be  inclined 


FiQ.  99.  —  Former  apiary  of  the  Bureau  of  Entomology,  College  Park,  Md. 
The  use  of  this  apiary  for  experimental  work  accounts  for  the  divergence 
in  the  height  of  the  hives.  The  hives  were  here  arranged  singly  about 
four  feet  apart. 


SO  that  the  entrance  is  about  an  inch  lower  than  the  back  of 
the  hive  to  prevent  water  from  collecting  on  the  bottom 
board.  It  is  usually  desirable  that  the  hives  be  so  placed 
that  the  beekeeper  will  not  need  to  pass  in  front  of  the  hive 
entrances  as  he  goes  about  his  work.  The  usual  practice 
is  to  place  hives  in  rows  either  close  together  on  a  slightly 
raised  platform  or  singly  on  individual  stands.  The  placing 
of  hives  in  pairs  on  a  single  stand  is  also  common.  Where 
economy  of  space  is  a  consideration,  it  is  found  advantageous 


232  Beekeeping 

to  place  hives  close  together  in  groups  of  four,  back  to  back, 
two  facing  east  and  two  west.  This  allows  a  space  beside 
each  hive  for  the  beekeeper  while  manipulating  and  is  greatly 
to  be  preferred  to  hives  in  long  rows  close  together.  Where 
space  will  permit,  the  placing  of  hives  singly  (Fig.  99)  is 
preferable. 

Number  of  colonies  in  one  apiary. 

The  number  of  colonies  which  may  profitably  be  kept  in 
one  apiary  depends  entirely  on  the  nectar  supply.  In  the 
white  clover  region,  it  is  considered  best  to  have  not  more 
than  one  hundred  colonies  in  an  apiary,  with  apiaries  lo- 
cated at  least  two  miles  apart.  This  number  can  be  in- 
creased in  many  localities.  In  the  other  general  honey 
regions  of  the  United  States,  it  is  usually  profitable  under 
favorable  local  conditions  to  keep  from  200  to  possibly  500 
colonies  in  one  apiary.  There  are  so  many  factors  to  con- 
sider in  determining  this  point  that  no  general  rules  may  be 
laid  down.  Since  this  is  not  a  question  which  the  beginner 
is  called  on  to  answer,  it  may  be  advised  that  the  beekeeper 
decide  each  case  individually  from  a  study  of  the  honey  flora, 
the  experience  of  other  beekeepers  and  his  own  experience. 

Out-apiaries. 

In  locating  an  apiary  away  from  the  central  apiary,  usually 
called  an  out-apiary  or  out-yard,  easy  transportation,  espe- 
cially to  the  main  apiarj'-,  is  most  desirable.  It  is  also  an 
advantage  to  have  the  out-yard,  especially  one  in  which 
comb-honey  is  produced,  near  to  the  home  of  some  person 
who  can  hive  swarms  which  may  issue  in  spite  of  precautions 
taken,  and  to  protect  the  colonies  from  depredation.  If  these 
things  are  not  practical,  it  is  better  to  have  the  bees  where 
they  are  not  easily  seen  from  the  highway. 

Conveniences  less  essential  in  out-apiaries. 

In  establishing  an  out-apiary,  the  points  previously  men- 
tioned should  be  considered  as  desirable  but  not  essential. 


The  Apiary  Site  233 

Since  bees  may  be  kept  on  roofs,  in  woods  and  in  other  places 
lacking  many  desirable  features,  it  will  be  seen  that  it  is  not 
profitable  to  consider  the  desirable  features  too  seriously. 
Another  distinction  should  be  made.  If  the  out-apiary  is 
permanent,  it  will  pay  better  to  plan  the  location  thoroughly. 
However,  many  commercial  beekeepers,  especially  those 
outside  the  white  clover  belt,  find  it  well  to  change  the  loca- 
tions of  their  out-apiaries  to  meet  changing  conditions  in 
the  region  and  they  therefore  do  not  find  it  profitable  to  con- 
sider the  conveniences  in  equipment  and  in  apiary  planning 
to  any  great  extent.  To  the  commercial  beekeeper  the 
only  essentials  are  the  things  which  bring  the  greatest 
return.  The  amateur  can  better  afford  to  spend  time  cut- 
ting grass  and  arranging  hive  stands  since  his  living  does  not 
depend  on  the  crop  and  he  has  fewer  colonies  for  which  to 
plan. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE  MANIPULATION  OF  BEES 

The  work  which  the  beekeeper  does  with  his  bees  has  for 
its  object  an  increase  in  their  productiveness.  Bees  gather 
nectar  and  pollen  when  they  are  available  in  response  to 
their  own  instincts  to  gather;  they  build  wax  when  it  is 
needed  if  space  and  food  are  available.  The  duties  of  the 
beekeeper  are  not  concerned  with  creating  these  impulses. 
However,  bees  do  not  always  work  so  as  to  accomplish  the 
most  efficient  results,  when  measured  by  the  commercial 
standards  of  the  beekeeper,  and  the  care  which  he  bestows 
on  his  bees  serves  to  provide  conditions  suitable  for  the 
turning  of  their  natural  instincts  into  those  channels  which 
will  yield  the  greatest  profit. 

Disturbance  to  he  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

Bees  should  be  handled  so  that  their  work  will  be  dis- 
turbed as  little  as  possible,  for  the  manipulations  of  the  bee- 
keeper are  only  accessory  to  their  labors.  Stings  should  be 
avoided.  This  is  not  so  much  because  they  are  painful,  but 
chiefly  because  the  odor  of  the  poison  irritates  bees  and 
makes  them  difficult  to  manage.  A  veil  (Fig.  26)  and  a  good 
smoker  (Fig.  24)  are  practically  indispensable.  By  the 
use  of  smoke,  the  bees  may  be  quieted  so  that  they  may  be 
handled  readily,  the  guards  are  disorganized  and  the  bees 
gorge  themselves  with  honey,  after  which  they  are  not 
easily  provoked  to  an  attack.  Too  much  smoke  must  be 
avoided  as  it  disorganizes  the  entire  colony  and  considerable 
time  elapses  before  the  bees  fully  return  to  their  normal 
activities. 

234 


The  Manipulation  of  Bees  235 

Hasty  movements  and  the  jarring  of  the  hive  are  to  be 
avoided.  The  organization  of  the  bee's  eyes  enables  it  to 
see  movement  more  readily  than  still  objects.  On  seeing 
bees  flying  about  the  face,  the  beginner  often  strikes  at 
them  or  moves  quickly  to  escape  the  sting,  thus  provoking 
an  attack.  It  requires  quiet  nerves  not  to  jerk  a  frame  or 
even  to  drop  it  when  the  hand  in  which  it  is  being  held  is 
stung. 

Equipment  for  manipulation. 

Aside  from  a  smoker,  veil  and  hive- tool,  the  beekeeper 
needs  no  other  equipment  in  opening  a  hive,  but  the  be- 
ginner may  find  gloves  (better  those  with  the  fingers  removed) 
desirable.  If  special  clothing  is  worn  in  the  apiary,  and  it 
is  desirable  for  both  comfort  and  economy  not  to  wear  one's 
best,  white  suits  are  most  satisfactory.  They  are  the  most 
comfortable  in  the  heat  of  summer  and  the  beekeeper  has 
a  good  excuse  for  this  comfort  because  they  are  best  for 
apiary  use. 

When  to  handle  bees. 

The  best  time  to  open  hives  is  in  the  middle  of  warm  days, 
especially  when  the  bees  are  busily  engaged  in  collecting 
nectar.  Bees  should  never  be  handled  at  night  nor  on  wet, 
cold  days.  It  is  not  always  possible  for  the  extensive  bee- 
keeper to  choose  the  ideal  time  but  it  is  well  to  plan  to  open 
hives  in  favorable  times,  not  only  for  the  comfort  of  the 
operator  but  principally  because  it  interferes  least  with  the 
work  of  the  colony. 

Opening  a  hive. 

Before  opening  the  hive,  a  little  smoke  should  be  blown 
in  the  entrance.  When  the  cover  is  slightly  raised,  a  little 
more  smoke  should  be  directed  over  the  frames  before  the 
bees  have  an  opportunity  to  escape.  If  .the  frames  are 
covered  by  a  mat  or  oilcloth,  which  is  not  desirable  but 
often  used,  the  outer  cover  may  be  entirely  removed  and  one 


236  Beekeeping 

corner  of  the  mat  lifted  to  admit  smoke.  The  covering 
then  may  be  removed  and  the  manipulation  begun.  In 
case  the  bees  become  troublesome  at  any  time  during  the 
work,  as  they  probably  will  if  it  is  continued  for  a  time, 
more  smoke  inay  be  blown  over  or  directed  down  between 
the  frames  to  disorganize  new  guards.  No  directions  need 
be  given  as  to  the  way  to  recognize  trouble  and  it  need 
only  be  stated  that  the  most  common  fault  is  to  use  smoke 
too  freely.     During  all  manipulations    the  operator  should 

stand  at  the  side  or  back 
of  the  hive  and  not  in 
front  of  it,  to  prevent  in- 
terference of  bees  leaving 
and  returning  to  the  hive. 
If  one  wishes  to  examine 
the  brood  chamber  when 
the  colony  is  in  two  or 
more  hive  bodies  or  has 

Fig.   100. -Hive-body  resting  on  co7er     COmb-honey     SUperS,     the 

during  manipulation.  hive    cover    serves    as    a 

good  support  for  the  re- 
moved bodies.  They  are  placed  diagonally  on  the  cover 
(Fig.  100)  with  only  four  points  of  support,  thus  avoiding 
the  crushing  of  bees.  If  a  second  body  is  removed,  it  may 
be  placed  out  of  line  on  the  first  in  the  same  manner.  If  the 
bees  show  signs  of  robbing,  combs  in  removed  bodies  should 
be  more  carefully  protected. 

Remedies  for  stings. 

Various  remedies  for  stings  have  been  advocated  but  they 
are  all  valueless.  The  puncture  made  by  the  sting  is  so 
small  that  no  liquid  can  enter  it  after  the  sting  is  removed 
and  the  opening  has  closed.  As  soon  as  practical,  imme- 
diately if  possible,  the  sting  should  he  removed,  care  being 
taken  not  to  squeeze  the  attached  poison  sac.  This  can  be 
done  by  scraping  the  sting  out  with  a  knife  blade  or  the  finger 
nail.     After  this  is  done  the  injured  spot  should  not  be 


The  Manipulation  of  Bees  237 

rubbed  and  the  usual  advice  of  the  beekeeper  is  to  ''forget 
it/'  Bathing  with  Hniment  or  any  other  irritation  serves 
only  to  spread  the  poison  through  the  tissues.  The  intense 
itching  soon  disappears.  As  a  comfort  to  the  novice,  it 
may  be  stated  that  repeated  stings  usually  cause  an  im- 
munity to  the  poison  to  develop,  after  which  no  after-swelling 
occurs.  In  case  of  severe  stinging,  the  injured  parts  may  be 
covered  with  an  ice  bag  or  with  cloth  wet  with  ice  water. 

Removing  frames. 

After  the  frames  are  exposed,  the  propolis  which  often 
fastens  them  may  be  loosened  by  prying  gently  with  a  hive- 
tool  and  the  frames  may  be  crowded  somewhat  closer  to- 
gether to  permit  the  removal  of  one  of  them.  It  is  immaterial 
which  frame  is  removed  first,  unless  the  special  object  for 
opening  the  hive  determines  it.  In  cool  weather  the  prop- 
olis may  be  brittle  and  care  should  be  taken  not  to  jar  the 
hive  as  this  is  broken. 

During  manipulation,  a  side  frame  is  often  removed  and 
leaned  against  the  hive  to  allow  more  room  for  moving  the 
other  frames.  In  leaning  a  frame  against  the  hive,  it  should 
be  in  a  nearly  upright  position  to  prevent  breakage  and 
leaking  of  honey.  The  frame  on  which  the  queen  is  located 
should  not  be  left  outside  the  hive  unless  necessary,  for  she 
may  crawl  away  and  be  lost.  The  frame  should  be  leaned 
against  the  hive  on  the  side  away  from  the  operator  so  that 
he  will  not  be  annoyed  by  bees  crawling  up  his  legs.  In  all 
the  handling  of  the  colony,  bees  should  not  be  crushed,  for 
this  excites  the  others,  and  if  frames  are  crowded  too  closely 
together  the  queen  may  be  killed. 

Handling  frames. 

In  examining  a  comb,  it  should  be  held  so  that  if  any  bees 
fall  they  will  drop  into  the  hive,  except  when  it  is  necessary 
to  carry  away  a  frame  for  some  purpose.  Freshly  gathered 
nectar  sometimes  drops  out  if  the  comb  is  improperly  handled. 
If  this  falls  into  the  hive  the  bees  clean  it  up,  whereas  outside 


238 


Beekeeping 


the  hive  it  may  cause  robbing  and  is  at  least  untidy.  The 
beginner  should  early  form  the  habit  of  keeping  combs  in  a 
vertical  position.  While  sometimes  it  does  no  harm  to 
tip  a  frame,  it  is  rarely  necessary  and  may  cause  honey  to 

leak  or  the   comb   to 
break,     especially     if 
the  frame  is  not  wired. 
As  a  comb   is   taken 
from    the    hive,    it 
should   be    lifted    by 
the  ends  of  the   top- 
bar,  two  hands  being 
used.     This  brings 
the  comb  up  vertically  with  one  side  toward  the  operator 
(Fig.   101).      To  examine  the  reverse  side  without  tilting 
the  comb,  raise  one  end  of  the  top-bar  until  it  is  perpendic- 
ular (Fig.  102),  turn  the  frame 
on  the  top-bar  as  an  axis  until 
the  reverse  side  is  brought  into 
view,  and  then  lower  to  a  hori- 
zontal position  with  the  top- 


FiQ.  101.  —  Handling  a  frame,  first  position. 


Fig.  102,  —  Handling  a  frame, 
second  position. 


Fig.  103.  —  Handling   a   frame^    third 
position. 


bar  below  (Fig.  103).  In  actual  practice  these  steps  are  not 
taken  successively  but  the  turning  on  the  top-bar  is  simul- 
taneous with  the  raising  and  lowering  of  the  end  of  the  frame. 
This  is  a  good  operation  for  the  beginner  to  practice  a  few  times. 


The  Manipulation  of  Bees 


239 


Desirahility  of  straight  combs  in  manipulation. 

The  use  of  comb-foundation  in  the  frames  is  desirable  to 
insure  uniform  comb,  all  of  worker  cells,  except  in  places 
where  the  foundation  may  sag  or  become  torn.  Drone 
comb  is  undesirable  ex- 
cept in  raising  drones  for 
queen-rearing.  The  use 
of  comb-foundation  in 
wired  frames  insures 
straight  combs  and  re- 
duces the  danger  of  bees 
being  crushed  in  remov- 
ing  or  in  returning 
frames.  A  frame-hive 
with  combs  built  cross- 
wise is  more  difficult  to 
handle  than  a  box-hive 
and  this  should  never  be 
permitted.  The  en- 
trance of  the  hive  should 
be  exactly  horizontal  so 
that  the  combs  will  hang 
parallel  with  the  sides 
of  the  hive  and  so  that 
the  outer  ones  are  not 
fastened  to  the  hive- 
body,  if  they  are  prop- 
erly spaced  at  the  top. 
The  back  of  the  hive 
should  be  about  one 
inch  higher  than  the 
front  to  allow  condensed  moisture  to  escape.  A  hive  level- 
ing device  made  by  Burton  N.  Gates  is  shown  in  the  ac- 
companying illustration  (Fig.  104)  which  needs  no  descrip- 
tion. This  has  been  found  useful,  especially  with  the  tile 
hive-stands  used  in  the  Bureau  of  Entomology  apiary. 


;Jgijl^MHUt"»l*^^'■' 


Fig.  104.  —  Hive  leveling  device.  In  the 
upper  figure  the  wedge-shaped  piece  is 
on  edge  so  that  when  the  top  is  level 
the  hive  entrance  is  one  inch  lower  than 
the  back.  In  the  lower  figure  the 
wedge  is  on  its  side. 


240  Beekeeping 

Closing  the  hive. 

In  closing  a  hive,  after  the  frames  are  replaced  and  spaced 
properly,  the  cover  should  be  put  on  in  such  a  way  as  to 
crush  no  bees.  If  necessary  the  bees  may  be  driven  down 
by  the  use  of  smoke,  but  if  bees  are  on  the  top  edges  of  the 
hive,  the  cover  may  be  slid  on  from  the  end  or  side  so  that 
none  will  be  crushed. 

OCCASIONAL  MANIPULATIONS 

In  the  discussions  which  follow,  manipulations  will  be 
described  which  may  be  useful  at  almost  any  time  or  at 
different  times  in  the  season  but  which  are  not  part  of  the 
regular  work  of  most  apiaries.  The  plan  followed  in  this 
book  is  to  give  the  various  manipulations  in  the  order  in 
which  they  are  used  during  the  season.  The  manipulations 
discussed  under  this  heading  are  most  frequently  useful  in 
the  spring. 

Feeding. 

To  stimulate  brood-rearing  or  to  provide  stores  in  the 
spring,  in  preparing  colonies  for  winter  and  at  other  times 
during  a  shortage  of  stores,  it  may  be  necessary  to  feed  the 
bees.  Obviously,  it  is  desirable  to  allow  the  bees  to  keep 
sufficient  honey  and  if  this  can  be  done  it  is  always  prefer- 
able to  feeding.  No  better  stimulation  to  heavy  breeding 
in  the  spring  can  be  found  than  adequate  protection  and  an 
abundance  of  stores,  but  a  large  amount  of  food  is  needed 
at  this  season  and  the  beekeeper  should  feed  if  he  finds  that 
he  has  failed  to  leave  enough.  In  small  hives,  the  giving  of 
additional  stores  in  the  spring  is  usually  desirable,  either 
in  the  form  of  combs  of  honey  or  as  a  syrup. 

The  feeding  of  sugar  syrup  to  produce  comb-honey  has 
of  course  been  tried  and  some  beekeepers  have  believed  that 
the  product  is  honey.  This  is  not  the  case  and  the  fraud 
may  readily  be  detected.  Fortunately,  even  at  the  lowest 
prices  of  granulated  sugar,  the  sections  actually  cost  the 


The  Manipulation  of  Bees  241 

beekeeper  more  than  he  gets  for  pure  comb-honey  and  this 
fact  effectually  keeps  adulterated  comb-honey  off  the  market. 

What  to  feed. 

Honey  from  an  unknown  source  should  never  be  fed, 
because  of  the  danger  of  introducing  disease.  Beekeepers 
usually  feel  that  it  is  cheaper  to  feed  sugar  syrup  because  of 
the  higher  market  value  of  honey,  but  no  food  for  bees  better 
than  honey  has  yet  been  found.  If  extracted-honey  is 
fed,  it  should  be  somewhat  diluted.  The  best  plan  is  to 
give  combs  of  honey. 

As  a  substitute  for  honey,  a  syrup  made  of  granulated 
sugar  is  best.  For  spring  feeding,  a  thin  syrup  may  be 
used,  even  as  dilute  as  two  parts  of  water  to  one  of  sugar 
(by  volume).  Ordinarily  equal  parts  of  each  are  used. 
For  supplying  winter  stores,  a  thick  syrup,  2\  to  2§  parts  of 
sugar  to  one  of  water,  is  preferable.  To  prevent  granula- 
tion of  the  sugar  in  the  thick  syrup,  it  is  inverted  (changed 
chemically  to  levulose  and  dextrose)  by  the  addition  of  a 
teaspoonful  of  tartaric  acid  to  20  pounds  of  sugar  while  the 
syrup  is  being  heated  to  dissolve  the  sugar  crystals.  In 
early  spring  and  late  fall,  syrup  may  be  fed  while  warm  and 
fall  feeding  should  be  done  as  rapidly  as  the  bees  will  take 
the  syrup.  In  making  syrup,  the  greatest  care  must  be 
taken  not  to  allow  it  to  be  discolored  by  scorching  the 
sugar;  it  should  be  as  clear  as  if  made  with  cold  water. 
Glucose,  other  cheap  syrups  or  molasses  and  the  cheaper 
grades  of  sugar  should  not  be  fed  to  bees,  especially  for 
winter  stores,  since  they  contain  substances  indigestible  to 
bees,  causing  dysentery. 

Candy  and  cube  sugar  are  sometimes  used  for  supplying 
bees  in  winter  after  their  stores  are  exhausted.  These 
should  be  used  only  in  emergency  and  nothing  but  granu- 
lated sugar  should  be  used  in  making  candy  for  this  purpose. 
A  soft  white  sugar,  known  in  the  trade  as  ''coffee  A,"  placed 
in  a  division  board  feeder  is  sometimes  used  as  a  stimulant 
to  brood-rearing. 


242 


Beekeeping 


Slow  feeding  to  prevent  robbing  is  sometimes  desirable 
during  extracting  or  other  manipulations  or  while  rearing 
queens.  A  thin  syrup  of  one  part  sugar  to  nine  of  water  is 
used,  being  fed  in  large  feeders  in  the  open. 


Fig.    105.  —  Division   board 
(Doolittle)  feeder. 


Fig.  106.  —  Alexander  feeder  in 
coUar  under  hive-body. 


Feeders. 

There  are  numerous  types  of  feeders,  used  for  different 
purposes.  The  division  board  feeder  (Fig.  105)  is  hung  in 
the  hive  like  a  frame.     It  may  be  filled  without  being  re- 


FiG.  107.  —  "  Pepper-box" 
feeder. 


Fig.  108. 


Pan  in  super  arranged 
for  feeding. 


The  Manipulation  of  Bees  243 

moved  and  a  float  must  be  used  to  prevent  bees  from  drown- 
ing. The  Alexander  feeder  (Fig.  106)  is  useful  mainly  for 
stimulation.  It  may  be  placed  under  the  rear  of  the  brood- 
chamber  if  the  bottom  board  is  moved  forward,  but  this 
often  causes  robbing  and  a  better  plan  is  to  place  it  in  a 
collar  imder  the  brood-chamber  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 
For  feeding  small  quantities,  a  "pepper-box  feeder"  (Fig. 
107)  may  be  inverted  over  the  brood  frames  in  an  empty 
hive-body.  Mason  jars  may  be  used  in  the  same  way, 
special  pierced  covers  being  sold  by  dealers  in  beekeeping 
supplies.  For  rapid  feeding  in  the  fall,  a  large  pan  in  an 
empty  super  (Fig.  108)  is  perhaps  best.  Green  grass  should 
be  thrown  in  the  syrup  to  give  support  to  the  bees  while 
feeding,  this  being  better  than  excelsior  or  chips  as  it  does 
not  absorb  the  syrup.  The  empty  super  and  pan  may  be 
placed  under  the  brood-chamber  for  late  feeding,  in  which 
case  the  bees  take  the  syrup  more  rapidly. 

Uniting. 

If  a  colony  becomes  queenless  in  late  fall,  it  is  usually 
not  profitable  to  give  it  a  queen,  but  it  may  be  united  with  a 
normal  colony  to  save  the  bees.  It  is  not  wise  to  try  to 
winter  weak  colonies,  but  if  two  or  more  are  united  to  make 
a  strong  colony,  keeping  the  best  queen,  the  risk  in  wintering 
is  reduced  and  better  results  are  obtained  in  the  spring. 
It  is  also  more  profitable  to  unite  weak  colonies  in  the  spring 
than  to  build  them  up. 

Influence  of  hive  odor. 

Every  colony  of  bees  has  a  distinctive  odor  by  which  bees 
recognize  individuals  from  their  own  colony,  normally 
resenting  the  entrance  to  their  hive  of  those  from  other 
colonies.  In  uniting  colonies,  the  different  odors  may  be 
hidden  by  smoking  both  vigorously.  Tobacco  smoke  may 
be  used,  but  if  too  much  is  employed  the  bees  become  stupe- 
fied. If  bees  are  stupefied  by  tobacco  smoke,  chloroform  or 
other  anaesthetics,  they  lose  their  memory  of  former  locations 


244  Beekeeping 

and  may  be  united  and  placed  wherever  desired,  but  Ameri- 
can beekeepers  rarely  have  occasion  to  use  such  methods. 
During  a  honey-flow,  when  the  field  bees  are  coming  in 
heavily  laden  with  nectar,  the  field  bees  of  two  colonies  that 
are  close  together  may  be  allowed  to  enter  one  hive  and  they 
do  not  molest  each  other.  The  queen  to  be  saved  should  be 
caged  for  a  day  or  two  to  overcome  the  danger  of  the  strange 
bees  killing  her.  When  brood-rearing  is  reduced,  as  in  the 
fall,  the  colony  odor  is  apparently  less  influential,  for  less 
precaution  is  necessary  in  uniting. 

Learning  the  new  location. 

Field  bees  return  to  the  location  of  their  hive  and  they 
remember  the  old  location  and  return  to  it  if  the  hive  is 
moved.  If  two  colonies  to  be  united  are  not  close  together, 
they  should  be  moved  gradually  nearer,  perhaps  a  foot 
every  day  that  the  bees  can  fly,  until  they  are  side  by  side. 
The  bees  learn  each  location  in  succession  and  after  uniting 
they  will  not  return  to  the  original  position  and  be  lost. 
If  it  is  necessary  to  move  the  colonies  faster,  they  may  be 
put  into  the  new  place  and  a  pile  of  brush  or  weeds  or  a 
slanting  board  placed  in  front  of  the  entrance  so  that  when 
the  bees  fly  out  they  will  perceive  a  change  and  learn  the  new 
location.  If  it  is  desired  to  unite  two  weak  swarms,  this 
may  be  done  simply  by  placing  them  together,  either  in  the 
hive  or  on  the  hive  entrance.  Swarming  bees  abandon  the 
memory  of  the  old  location  (p.  180) ;  they  are  full  of  honey 
and  may  be  placed  anywhere.  The  better  queen  should  be 
saved  and  the  other  removed  or  the  bees  may  separate  into 
clusters.  Swarms  may  be  added  to  newly  .established  colo- 
nies if  desired. 

If  queenless  colonies  are  found  in  early  spring  which  are 
to  be  united  with  normal  colonies,  the  usual  practice  is  to 
place  them  on  top  of  the  normal  colony.  Few  bees  return 
and  there  is  usually  no  trouble  as  such  bees  seem  ready  to  go 
to  any  colony. 


The  Manipulation  of  Bees  245 

Transferring. 

In  increasing  the  apiary,  it  is  sometimes  profitable  to  buy 
colonies  in  box-hives  because  of  their  small  cost.  They 
should,  of  course,  be  transferred  to  movable-frame  hives  as 
speedily  as  possible,  for  bees  in  box-hives  are  of  small  value 
as  producers,  because  of  the  impossibility  of  manipulating 
the  combs.  The  advice  is  often  given  to  beginners  co  buy 
colonies  in  box-hives  and  transfer  them,  but  this  advice  is 
(questionable.  There  is  no  more  trying  work  connected 
with  beekeeping,  unless  possibly  it  is  the  moving  of  a  large 
apiary,  and  if  a  beginner  can  successfully  transfer  a  colony 
from  a  box-hive  he  has  proved  his  right  to  become  a  beekeeper. 

The  best  time  to  transfer  colonies,  if  there  is  opportunity 
for  choice,  is  the  spring  (during  fruit  bloom  in  the  North) 
when  the  amount  of  honey  and  the  population  of  the  colony 
are  at  a  minimum.  However,  the  work  can  be  done  at  any 
time  during  the  active  season,  but  there  should  be  nectar 
coming  to  the  hives  so  that  while  combs  are  exposed  robbing 
will  not  be  induced.  If  necessary,  transferring  may  be  done 
in  a  tent  or  cage  of  netting  or  wire  cloth  to  keep  robbers 
away,  but  the  odor  of  honey  may  cause  excitement  in  the 
apiary.  If  the  field  bees  are  out  of  the  hive,  the  work  is 
lessened. 

Methods. 

There  are  several  methods  of  transferring  and  one  may 
be  chosen  according  to  the  plans  and  wishes  of  the  beekeeper. 

Plan  1.  —  The  box-hive  is  set  a  few  feet  to  one  side  and 
in  its  place  is  put  a  hive  with  movable  frames,  containing 
full  sheets  of  foundation  or  drawn  combs.  As  the  field  bees 
return,  they  go  at  once  to  the  new  hive.  The  box-hive  is 
turned  upside  down  and  a  small  box  is  inverted  over  it. 
The  box-hive  is  now  pounded  continuously  (the  operation 
being  known  as  drumming  or  driving)  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  transmit  the  jar  to  the  combs  and  the  bees  desert  their 
combs  for  the  upper  box.    They  cluster  in  this  box  like  a 


246 


Beekeeping 


natural  swarm  and  they  may  then  be  thrown  in  the  new 
hive.  If  possible,  the  queen  should  be  seen  so  that  the 
operator  may  be  sure  that  she  is  off  the  old  combs.  It  is 
necessary  that  she  be  obtained,  unless  one  desires  to  requeen 
at  this  time,  in  which  event  the  old  queen  should  be  cap- 
tured and  the  new  one  may  be  run  in  with  the  bees  and  will 
be  promptly  accepted.  The  box-hive  containing  the  brood 
is  now  placed  right  side  up  in  a  new  location.  In  21  days 
all  of  the  worker  brood  will  have  emerged  and  possibly 
some  new  queens  will  be  reared.     These  bees  may  be  driven 

out  and  united 
with  their  former 
hive-mates  by 
allowing  them  to 
run  in  the  en- 
trance. They 
should,  however, 
be  compelled  to 
go  through  per- 
forated zinc  or  a 
queen  and  drone 
trap  (Fig.  30)  to 
keep  out  the 
young  queens. 
The  old  combs 
may  now  be 
melted  after  removing  the  honey.  By  this  method  straight 
combs  are  obtained.  If  nectar  is  not  being  collected,  the 
newly  established  colony  should  be  fed. 

Plan  2.  —  Wait  until  a  swarm  issues  from  the  box-hive 
and  then  move  the  old  hive  to  a  new  location.  The  swarm 
is  then  placed  in  a  new  hive  on  the  old  stand  and  it  is  further 
increased  by  returning  field  bees.  After  21  days  the  bees 
which  have  emerged  are  united  with  the  bees  in  the  new 
hive,  as  described  under  Plan  1. 

Plan  3.  —  If  the  beekeeper  desires  to  save  the  combs  in 
the  box-hive,  the  bees  may  be  drummed  into  a  box,  after 


Fig.  109.  —  Cutting  combs  from  a  box-hive. 


The  Manipulation  of  Bees  247 

which  the  brood  combs  and  any  other  good  combs  are  cut 
out  (Fig.  109)  and  fitted  into  frames,  being  fastened  with 
string,  rubber  bands  or  strips  of  wood  until  the  bees  have  an 
opportunity  to  repair  them.  These  frames  are  hung  in  a 
hive  on  the  old  stand  and  the  bees  are  then  allowed  to  run  in. 
The  cutting  of  combs,  especially  those  containing  brood  and 
honey,  is  a  disagreeable  job  and,  since  combs  from  a  box- 
hive  are  usually  of  little  value,  this  method  is  not  recom- 
mended. 

Plan  4.  —  Another  method  which  is  in  some  respects 
better  than  those  just  given  is  to  place  the  box-hive  with  its 
largest  surface  uppermost.  If  the  bottom  is  now  open,  it  is 
closed  except  for  an  entrance  and  a  piece  is  removed  from 
the  upper  side  of  the  box-hive.  The  hive  in  which  the  colony 
is  to  be  located  is  now  put  over  the  large  opening  and  all 
cracks  and  openings  around  it  are  closed.  The  upper  hive 
is  filled  with  drawn  combs  or,  if  these  are  not  available,  with 
sheets  of  foundation.  When  the  queen  needs  more  room 
for  egg-laying,  she  will  go  to  the  upper  hive  and,  after  she 
is  located  there,  a  queen  excluder  is  put  between  the  box-hive 
and  the  new  hive  to  prevent  her  return.  As  the  brood 
emerges  below,  the  colony  becomes  established  above.  If 
there  is  difficulty  in  getting  the  queen  to  go  to  the  new  hive, 
the  box-hive  may  be  drummed.  After  the  brood  in  the  old 
combs  has  all  emerged,  the  bees  may  be  drummed  from  the 
box-hive  and  it  may  be  treated  as  desired. 

Transferring  from  walls  of  houses. 

Swarms  often  locate  in  the  walls  of  houses  and  it  is  some- 
times necessary  to  remove  them  to  prevent  damage  from 
melting  combs.  If  the  cavity  in  which  the  combs  are 
built  is  accessible,  the  method  is  the  same  as  in  transferring 
under  the  third  plan,  except  that  drumming  is  impractical 
and  the  combs  must  be  cut  out  with  the  bees  still  adhering 
to  them.  A  liberal  use  of  smoke  will  subdue  them.  If  it  is 
impossible  to  open  the  cavity  without  doing  considerable 
damage  to  the  building,  a  bee-escape  (Fig.  19)  may  be  put 


248  Beekeeping 

over  the  entrance  so  that  the  bees  can  leave  but  cannot 
return,  any  other  openings  to  the  combs  being  carefully 
closed.  Even  better  than  a  bee-escape  is  a  cone  of  wire- 
cloth  eight  inches  high  with  a  hole  at  the  apex  just  large 
enough  for  a  single  bee  to  pass.  This  is  tacked  on  the  house 
and  the  bees  issue  through  the  hole  in  the  apex  but  do  not 
find  it  again  to  return.  A  hive  (with  drawn  combs  in  it  if 
possible)  is  then  placed  so  that  its  entrance  is  as  near  as 
practical  to  the  entrance  which  the  bees  have  been  using. 
A  queen  should  soon  be  introduced  to  the  bees  in  the  hive. 
The  old  queen  does  not  desert  her  combs  and  continues  lay- 
ing eggs,  but,  as  her  colony  is  depopulated,  the  amount  of 
brood  rapidly  diminishes.  As  brood  emerges,  the  young 
bees  also  leave  through  the  wire-cloth  cone  and  join  the  bees 
in  the  hive  until  in  four  or  five  weeks  the  queen  is  left  prac- 
tically alone.  When  nearly  all  of  the  bees  are  out  of  the 
cavity  and  there  is  little  or  no  brood,  the  bee-escape  is  re- 
moved, the  entrance  to  the  cavity  is  made  larger  if  possible 
and  if  there  is  no  honey-flow,  the  bees  rob  their  old  home 
and  carry  the  honey  to  their  new  hive,  leaving  only  the  empty 
combs.  These  will  usually  do  no  damage  as  wax-moths 
soon  destroy  them.  The  entrance  to  the  cavity  should  now 
be  carefully  closed  to  prevent  another  swarm  from  taking 
up  quarters  there  and  the  hive  is  removed.  This  method 
takes  considerable  time,  but  is  often  best  where  the  cavity 
is  inaccessible.  It  is  often  difficult  to  close  the  cavity  to 
prevent  the  bees  from  establishing  a  new  entrance  when  a 
bee-escape  is  placed  over  the  one  to  which  they  are  accus- 
tomed. 

Transferring  from  hollow  trees. 

The  method  to  be  used  will  depend  on  the  accessibility 
of  the  cavity  and  the  value  of  the  tree.  Usually  the  bees 
cannot  be  drummed  out  and  the  combs  must  be  cut  out 
after  subduing  the  bees  with  smoke.  If  the  colony  is  high  in 
the  tree  and  the  tree  is  felled,  the  bees  are  disorganized  by 
the  jarring  so  that  they  can  be  handled  easily.     The  himting 


The  Manipulation  of  Bees  249 

of  colonies  in  the  woods  is  interesting  and  the  cutting  of  a 
bee  tree  is  an  experience  which  everyone  interested  in  bees 
should  have,  but  the  time  consumed  is  considerably  more 
than  the  value  of  the  bees  and  honey  justify.  It  does  not 
pay  to  build  up  the  apiary  in  this  way  if  the  beekeeper's 
time  is  valuable. 

Preventing  robbing  in  the  apiary. 

At  any  time  during  warm  weather,  bees  are  inclined  to 
rob  other  colonies,  if  there  is  no  honey-flow.  Every  precau- 
tion should  be  taken  to  prevent  this.  Feeding  often  attracts 
other  bees  and,  if  there  are  indications  of  robbing,  it  should 
be  deferred  until  late  in  the  day.  Honey  left  where  bees 
can  get  it  or  combs  left  out  of  the  hives  during  manipulations 
may  at  times  lead  to  serious  robbing. 

As  soon  as  robbers  are  noticed,  manipulation  should  be 
discontinued  and  the  hives  should  be  closed.  If  serious 
robbing  occurs,  the  entrances  should  be  contracted  and  the 
hive  fronts  wiped  with  a  cloth  moistened  with  kerosene  or 
carbolic  acid.  If  brush  is  thrown  at  the  entrances,  robbers 
are  less  likely  to  enter.  Outdoor  feeding  to  prevent  robbing 
is  described  in  a  previous  section  (p.  242). 

A  wire-cloth  cage,  five  feet  square  and  six  feet  high,  may 
be  used  if  manipulations  are  necessary  during  a  time  when 
robbing  is  probable.  This  cage  should  not  be  closed  at  the 
top  and  bees  which  fly  from  the  colony  under  manipulation 
escape,  while  robbers  will  rarely  enter.  A  folding  tent  or 
cage  made  of  mosquito  netting  may  also  be  used.  A  smaller 
wire  cage  closed  at  the  top  may  be  set  over  a  colony  that  is 
being  robbed. 

If  the  cause  of  robbing  is  suddenly  removed,  this  may 
produce  more  excitement  than  if  the  robber  bees  were  allowed 
to  complete  their  work.  For  example,  if  a  colony  is  being 
robbed  and  is  suddenly  removed  to  save  it,  the  robbers 
turn  their  attention  to  other  colonies,  or  if  a  piece  of  exposed 
comb  has  attracted  robbers,  its  removal  may  divert  them 
to  more  serious  devastation. 


250 


Beekeeping 


The  beginner  in  beekeeping  may  mistake  the  play  flights 
of  young  bees  for  robbing,  but  after  the  latter  has  once  been 
observed  this  error  will  not  be  repeated.  Bees  appear  old 
soon  after  they  begin  robbing ;  they  are  dark  and  thin,  their 
actions  are  nervous,  and  the  hairs  on  the  body  are  lost, 
probably  by  being  torn  off  by  defending  bees  and  by  squeez- 
ing through  narrow  openings. 

When  a  colony  is  abnormal,  as  in  queenlessness  or  disease, 
it  may  be  robbed  of  its  stores  slowly,  without  any  excitement, 

usually  by  the  bees  of  a 
single  colony. 


Moving  hees. 

In  migratory  beekeep- 
ing, in  bringing  pur- 
chased bees  to  the  apiary 
and  under  various  other 
circumstances  the  bee- 
keeper will  find  it  neces- 
sary to  move  bees.  The 
frames  must  be  fastened 
firmly  in  place.  If  self- 
spacing  frames  are  used, 
especially  if  there  is  con- 
siderable propolis  on  them,  no  precautions  need  be  taken 
to  prevent  the  swinging  of  the  frames,  but  it  is  often 
desirable  to  nail  a  |-inch  strip  over  the  tops  of  the  frames 
so  that  they  cannot  fall  out  of  place  if  the  hive  is 
tipped.  Abundant  ventilation  should  be  given,  the 
amount  depending  on  the  temperature.  In  cold  weather, 
the  entrances  may  simply  be  closed  with  a  block  and  the  cover 
fastened  securely,  but  in  extremely  hot  weather  it  is  desir- 
able to  remove  the  cover  or  both  the  cover  and  the  bottom 
board  and  nail  on  wire-cloth  (Fig.  110).  A  2-inch  collar 
may  be  fastened  to  the  top  of  the  hive-body  and  wire-cloth 
put  above  this,  to  give  clustering  space  for  the  bees.  Colo- 
nies rarely  suffer  from  exposure  during  moving  so  that  the 


Fig.  110.  —  Hive  ready  for  moving, 
this  case  the  bottom  board  is  left  on. 


The  Manipulation  of  Bees  251 

beekeeper  should  not  err  by  giving  inadequate  ventilation. 
In  transporting  colonies  on  a  wagon,  the  length  of  the  frames 
should  be  across  the  wagon  bed,  while  on  a  train  they  should 
be  parallel  with  the  length  of  the  car. 

It  is  customary  to  ship  colonies  in  hives  with  combs,  but 
recently  the  shipping  of  bees  in  wire-cloth  cages  without 
combs  has  been  practiced.  This  has  much  to  commend  it, 
especially  in  reducing  the  danger  of  introducing  bee  diseases 
into  new  locations.  The  cages  contain  numerous  slats  on 
which  the  bees  hang,  and  they  are  provided  with  food  for 
the  bees  en  route.  The  bees  are  put  into  the  cage  by  means 
of  a  funnel,  either  with  or  without  a  queen.  Bees  are  now 
regularly  sold  by  the  pound  in  such  packages  and  shipped 
to  all  parts  of  the  United  States.  It  is  probable  that  as  this 
method  is  perfected  it  will  be  used  in  migratory  beekeeping, 
thus  avoiding  danger  of  carrying  disease  to  the  home  apiary 
and  reducing  the  transportation  charges. 


ELIMINATION   OF   NON-ESSENTIAL   MANIPULATIONS 

While  it  is  necessary  in  any  discussion  of  beekeeping  which 
aims  at  completeness  to  describe  the  various  manipulations 
which  may  be  needed  during  the  course  of  the  year,  the  bee- 
keeper should  early  in  his  experience  establish  a  system  for 
the  care  of  his  bees  so  that  unessential  movements  and 
manipulations  may  be  avoided.  If  bees  are  kept  solely 
for  pleasure,  it  matters  little  whether  they  are  disturbed  in 
their  work,  and  the  time  of  the  beekeeper  need  not  be  con- 
sidered an  important  consideration,  but  when  bees  are  kept 
for  profit,  these  factors  become  vital.  Every  manipulation 
which  does  not  benefit  the  beekeeper  by  increasing  his 
profit  should  be  ruthlessly  ehminated,  and  every  time  a 
colony  is  opened  it  should  be  for  some  definite  purpose. 

Two  essentials. 

There  are  two  factors  necessary  to  the  production  of  the 
maximum   honey-crop   over  which   the   beekeeper   has  no 


252  .    Beekeeping 

control.  He  cannot  govern  the  weather  or  produce  honey- 
plants  with  profit.  There  are  on  the  other  hand  two  other 
factors  with  which  his  work  must  deal.  His  efforts  should 
be  for  the  purpose  (1)  of  getting  plenty  of  bees  of  the  right 
age  in  time  for  the  harvest  and  (2)  of  keeping  these  bees  in 
proper  condition  for  gathering  the  maximum  crop.  The 
first  essential  is  far-reaching  and  obviously  includes  the 
entire  care  of  the  colonies  to  prevent  starvation  or  loss  from 
other  causes.  It  applies  especially  to  the  work  in  the 
spring.  The  second  essential  applies  chiefly  to  the  control 
of  swarming.  It  is  well  for  the  beekeeper  to  keep  these  two 
essentials  always  before  him  and  to  ask  himself,  when  he 
plans  any  work  with  the  bees,  whether  it  comes  under  one 
of  these  heads. 

The  beekeeper  may  profitably  go  one  step  further  in  the 
analysis.  For  example,  stimulative  feeding  in  the  spring 
is  mentioned  earlier  in  this  chapter.  He  should  first  of  all 
determine  whether  stimulative  feeding  is  more  profitable 
than  the  giving  of  abundant  stores.  If  he  finds  that  he  gets 
more  bees  by  stimulative  feeding,  he  should  then  determine 
whether  he  gets  enough  more  to  justify  the  expenditure  of 
time  and  money,  or  whether  he  can  get  a  larger  total  crop 
by  keeping  a  few  more  colonies,  combined  with  the  giving 
of  abundant  stores.  An  example  taken  from  life  may  not 
be  amiss,  the  names  being  here  omitted.  Two  beekeepers 
are  located  in  exceptional  situations  which  may  be  assumed 
to  be  equally  good.  One  of  these  men  is  skilled  in  the 
improvement  of  his  stock  and  has  made  significant  progress, 
but  the  work  occupies  considerable  time.  The  other  bee- 
keeper feels  that  he  has  not  the  time  for  this  (and  he  may 
not  have  the  skill),  but  he  keeps  100  colonies  more  than  his 
co-worker.  In  the  case  just  given  the  beekeeper  with  the 
larger  number  of  colonies  makes  more  money,  but  this  illus- 
tration is  by  no  means  given  to  discourage  breeding  work. 
It  shows,  however,  that  for  that  particular  region  the  greater 
profits  come  with  extensive  beekeeping,  while  in  other  regions 
more  intensive  work  might  yield  better  financial  returns. 


The  Manipulation  of  Bees  253 

Both  men  have  the  same  object  in  view  —  to  produce  workers 
on  time  for  the  harvest.  Both  are  successful  while  all  about 
them  are  beekeepers  with  indifferent  or  poor  success,  at- 
tributed probably  to  bad  luck. 

Increase  in  efficiency  through  system. 

Not  only  must  these  essentials  be  emphasized,  but  the 
necessary  manipulations  must  be  systematized.  After  some 
effort  in  this  respect,  the  beekeeper  is  usually  astonished 
at  what  may  be  accomplished.  This  may  be  illustrated 
by  another  case.  This  beekeeper  began  work  with  bees 
on  a  business  basis  after  keeping  a  few  colonies  for  pleasure 
for  several  years.  At  the  beginning  of  his  experience  he 
taught  school,  thus  having  his  Saturdays  for  the  bees  as  well 
as  the  summer  vacation.  At  first  the  vacation  was  six 
months,  but  later  the  school  year  was  increased,  giving  him 
only  three  months.  By  systematizing  his  work,  he  was 
able  to  do  as  much  as  formerly  and  gradually  increased  his 
colonies  to  250  in  three  apiaries,  all  run  for  comb-honey. 
He  then  gave  up  teaching  and  accepted  a  position  which 
kept  him  away  from  his  bees  except  during  thirty  days'  vaca- 
tion in  the  summer.  At  first  he  was  frequently  near  his  bees 
so  that  if  any  work  was  necessary  he  could  arrange  to  have 
it  done  by  others.  Finally  he  accepted  another  position 
which  took  him  entirely  away  from  his  old  home  and  he 
now  goes  back  just  before  the  honey-flows  and  leaves  as 
soon  as  they  are  over.  He  still  produces  comb-honey  and 
is  still  successful.  He  has  probably  almost  reached  the 
maximum  number  of  colonies  that  he  can  run  for  comb- 
honey  in  so  short  a  time.  It  is  obvious  that  many  manipu- 
lations usually  considered  necessary  must  be  eliminated  in 
these  apiaries.  By  leaving  plenty  of  stores  and  by  giving 
the  bees  abundant  protection  many  of  these  are  rendered 
unnecessary.  This  case  is  not  by  any  means  recorded  as 
ideal,  but  it  illustrates  what  the  elimination  of  superfluous 
manipulations  may  accompUsh. 

Anyone  can  produce  honey  in  a  time  of  plenty,  but  only 


254  Beekeeping 

the  good  beekeeper  gets  an  adequate  return  in  less  abundant 
seasons.  The  ideals  toward  which  the  beekeeper  should 
work  are  :  (1)  to  handle  the  bees  as  Uttle  as  possible ;  (2)  to 
manipulate  them  only  when  he  has  some  definite  object  in 
view ;  (3)  to  follow  a  definite  system,  not  based  on  rules  but 
on  a  knowledge  of  bees,  capable  of  modification  as  occasion 
may  arise,  but  working  for  one  end  —  maximum  honey- 
production. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
SPRING  MANAGEMENT 

In  attempting  to  give  the  work  of  the  apiary  in  chron- 
ological order,  it  is  difficult  to  decide  where  to  begin.  To  a 
large  degree,  success  depends  on  the  results  obtained  in 
wintering,  so  that  preparation  for  winter  might  be  considered 
the  first  step  in  the  annual  cycle,  and  practical  beekeepers 
usually  so  consider  it.  However,  winter  is  a  period  during 
which  the  beekeeper  has  little  work  with  his  bees,  and  it  is 
perhaps  better  to  begin  the  cycle  with  the  first  evidences  of 
activity  outside  the  hive.  As  has  been  shown,  bees  do  not 
hibernate,  and  consequently  their  early  ffights  are  not 
evidences  of  an  awakening  after  a  period  of  inactivity. 
With  their  first  return  to  the  open  air  in  the  spring,  the  bee- 
keeper knows  that  the  active  season  with  his  bees  has  arrived. 

As  will  be  shown  in  the  chapter  on  wintering  (see  also 
p.  91),  bees  are  often  compelled  to  retain  their  feces  for 
long  periods  in  winter.  This,  together  with  the  excessive 
generation  of  heat,  may  deplete  the  colony,  causing  condi- 
tions known  as  spring  dwindling  and  dysentery,  one  or  both  of 
which  may  be  present. 

It  will  also  be  shown  later  that  it  is  not  desirable  to  manipu- 
late bees  in  winter.  Brood-rearing  may  begin  during  the 
severe  weather  of  January  or  February  in  the  North  in 
colonies  wintered  out  of  doors,  but  this  can  scarcely  be 
considered  as  an  activity  of  spring. 

With  the  opening  of  the  earhest  spring  flowers  and  the 
accompanying  rise  in  temperature,  the  bees  venture  forth  to 
get  the  small  amounts  of  nectar  and  pollen  thus  provided. 

255 


256  Beekeeping 

As  the  weather  becomes  warmer  the  supplies  rapidly  increase 
and  the  bees  are  greatly  stimulated  to  build  up  the  colony. 
The  old  bees  that  emerged  the  previous  autumn  have  been 
called  upon,  under  ordinary  winter  conditions,  to  expend 
considerable  energy,  and  their  ability  to  do  the  collecting  and 
the  inside  work  in  the  spring  is  in  general  in  inverse  ratio 
to  the  expenditure  of  energy  in  the  winter.  Brood-rearing, 
however,  begins  before  or  as  soon  as  new  supplies  come  to 
the  hive,  provided,  of  course,  that  the  colony  is  normal,  and 
as  the  first  bees  emerge  they  in  turn  increase  the  capacity  of 
the  colony  for  brood-rearing,  so  that  with  a  good  queen  and 
other  favorable  conditions  the  brood  is  rapidly  increased. 

Object  of  spring  manipulations. 

The  main  object  of  the  work  in  the  spring  is  to  insure  an 
abundance  of  bees  in  time  for  the  harvest.  In  the  more 
northern  localities,  summer  comes  on  with  a  rush  and  often 
the  principal  nectar-secreting  plants  are  in  bloom  so  soon 
after  cold  weather  that  the  colony  is  frequently  not  in  condi- 
tion to  obtain  the  maximum  crop,  or  there  may  be  a  period 
in  the  spring  when,  from  lack  of  nectar,  the  bees  are  not 
stimulated  to  the  maximum  breeding.  If  left  to  themselves 
and  if  honey  is  already  present  in  the  hive,  bees  will  naturally 
rear  brood  and  thereby  rapidly  increase  the  size  of  the 
colony,  and  the  work  of  the  beekeeper  is  to  provide  the  most 
favorable  conditions  for  the  manifestation  of  this  instinct. 

Prevention  of  drifting. 

Colonies  which  are  wintered  in  the  cellar  need  not  be  put 
in  the  same  locations  that  they  occupied  the  previous  year, 
when  they  are  removed.  In  setting  them  out,  some  care 
is  necessary  to  prevent  mixing.  If  they  can  fly  as  soon  as 
they  are  set  out,  they  may  rush  forth  and  then  be  unable 
again  to  locate  the  proper  hive,  in  which  case  they  often 
**  drift,"  that  is,  bees  enter  the  wrong  colonies  with  the  result 
that  some  colonies  will  be  increased  in  size  at  the  expense 
of  others.     If  bees  can  be  set  out  at  night  or  on  a  cloudy  or 


Spring  Management  257 

chilly  day,  this  is  generally  avoided.  The  entrances  may 
also  be  reduced  or,  if  necessary,  may  be  closed  with  wet 
cloths. 

Spring  protection. 

If  the  colonies  have  been  wintered  in  the  cellar,  breeding 
will  normally  not  begin  so  soon  as  in  colonies  that  were  left 
outside.  When  the  hives  are  carried  to  their  summer  stands, 
the  bees  are  subjected  to  sudden  changes  in  temperature  and 
to  low  temperatures  and,  unless  the  wintering  has  been 
exceptionally  good,  they  may  be  able  to  withstand  adverse 
conditions  less  well  than  colonies  that  were  wintered  in  the 
open.  It  is  therefore  preferable  to  provide  packing  for 
these  colonies,  even  if  it  is  only  a  wrapping  of  waterproof 
paper  over  the  hive.  After  colonies  are  removed,  the  bees 
need  a  cleansing  flight  to  rid  themselves  of  the  accumulated 
feces  and  they  should  be  put  out  at  a  time  when  this  will 
probably  soon  be  possible. 

First  examinations. 

During  early  breeding,  the  beekeeper  ought  to  have  no 
occasion  to  open  a  hive,  but,  if  he  finds  that  certain  colonies 
are  not  up  to  standard,  he  may  choose  a  warm  day  to  open 
them  to  do  whatever  conditions  may  demand.  After  a 
winter  away  from  the  bees,  the  beekeeper  is  usually  anxious 
to  look  at  them.  On  a  fine  warm  day  when  the  bees  are 
flying  freely,  he  should  make  his  first  general  examination 
of  the  apiary  but,  if  he  has  previously  supplied  the  colonies 
with  abundant  stores  and  has  them  protected  from  changes 
of  temperature,  he  may  well  put  off  a  general  examination 
of  the  apiary.  If  he  desires  to  learn  whether  the  bees  have 
sufficient  stores  he  can  determine  this  by  lifting  the  hive, 
or  the  size  of  the  cluster  may  be  determined,  without  break- 
ing the  propolis  which  seals  the  cover,  by  looking  at  the 
combs  from  below. 

On  the  first  examination,  the  beekeeper  should  look 
especially  for  queenless  colonies.     If  any  are  found,  it  is 


258  Beekeeping 

best  to  unite  these  with  normal  colonies,  although  queens 
may  now  be  obtained  early  from  southern  breeders.  He 
should  also  examine  the  stores,  for  bees  require  large  amounts 
of  food  during  the  spring  and,  while  they  usually  get  consid- 
erable nectar,  it  rarely  is  enough  to  provide  stores  for  exces- 
sive breeding.  If  food  is  needed,  it  may  be  given  rapidly 
in  the  form  of  a  thick  sugar  syrup,  or  it  is  even  better  to  give 
combs  of  honey.  If  hives  are  soiled  with  the  spottings  of 
dysentery  or  if  there  are  dead  bees  present,  the  hives  may  be 
cleaned  out  somewhat,  but  the  first  examination  should  be 
brief,  unless  the  weather  is  exceptionally  warm. 

Spring  dwindling. 

The  old  bees  die  rapidly  and  are  replaced  by  young  bees, 
which,  in  a  good  colony,  emerge  more  rapidly  than  the  old 
ones  disappear.  If,  on  the  contrary,  mortality  among  the 
old  bees  exceeds  the  rate  of  emergence,  the  condition  arises 
which  is  known  as  spring  dwindling.  Obviously,  prevention 
is  better  than  treatment,  but  by  giving  extra  protection  and 
by  making  the  collection  of  stores  unnecessary  by  feeding, 
the  energy  of  the  old  bees  may  be  conserved  so  that  it  is 
utilized  chiefly  in  rearing  brood  and  the  colony  may  often 
be  saved.  The  brood-chamber  may  also  be  reduced  to  con- 
serve the  heat  of  the  cluster. 

Need  of  water. 

Bees  need  water  for  brood-rearing  and  it  sometimes  hap- 
pens in  the  spring  that  bees  are  lost  in  trying  to  obtain  it. 
If  there  is  no  water  close  at  hand,  it  is  often  advantageous 
to  provide  a  watering  place  in  a  warm  sheltered  spot  in  or 
near  the  apiary. 

Uniting. 

If  exceptionally  weak  colonies  are  found,  it  is  economy 
not  to  attempt  to  build  them  up,  but  to  unite  them.  In 
uniting  colonies  in  the  spring,  two  weak  colonies  should 
not  be  placed  together,  but  a  weak  colony  should  be  placed 


Spring  Management  259 

with  a  strong  one.  If  desired,  the  number  can  be  restored 
by  subsequent  division.  This  is  one  of  the  most  important 
points  in  spring  management. 

Cleaning  the  hives. 

When  the  weather  becomes  settled,  it  is  desirable,  espe- 
cially where  comb-honey  is  produced,  to  subject  the  hive  to  a 
spring  house-cleaning.  If  the  bottom  board  is  cleaned  of 
debris  and  the  propolis  is  scraped  from  the  frames  and 
rabbets,  it  will  not  only  facilitate  future  manipulations  but, 
when  the  sections  are  put  on,  there  will  be  less  propolis  avail- 
able to  discolor  them.  Beekeepers,  however,  are  not  so 
devoted  to  a  spring  house-cleaning  as  are  housewives.  While 
Caucasian  bees  were  kept  in  the  apiary  of  the  Bureau  of 
Entomology  the  removal  of  propolis  in  the  spring  was  prac- 
tically a  necessity.  This  may  be  done  quickly  in  the  spring, 
while  the  propolis  is  brittle.  Dr.  Miller  uses  a  hoe  to  remove 
propolis  and  burr  combs  from  the  top-bars  of  the  brood 
frames. 

Equalizing  the  colonies. 

Not  all  colonies  increase  in  population  equally  fast,  even 
with  the  best  of  management.  The  differences  may  be  due 
to  a  variety  of  causes.  If  some  colonies  have  more  stores 
than  they  need,  thereby  reducing  the  space  available  for 
brood-rearing,  combs  of  honey  may  be  removed  and  given 
to  colonies  that  need  more  stores,  returning  to  the  rich 
colonies  empty  combs  removed  from  those  to  which  honey  is 
given.  Similarly,  if  some  hives  contain  more  brood  than  the 
average,  colonies  may  be  equalized  by  taking  combs  of 
emerging  brood  with  the  adhering  workers  away  from  those 
abundantly  supplied,  giving  them  to  weaker  colonies,  care 
being  exercised  not  to  transfer  the  queen.  The  weakest 
colonies  in  the  apiary  should  be  assisted  in  this  way  only 
after  all  the  others  are  equalized ;  then  they  are  given  any 
frames  of  brood  still  available,  and  are  thus  built  up  as  rapidly 
as  possible.     Another  method  of  equalizing  is  to  shake  bees 


260  Beekeeping 

from  the  frames  of  a  strong  colony  in  front  of  the  entrances 
of  those  to  be  helped.  The  young  bees  go  in  and  are  accepted, 
while  the  field  bees  return  to  their  original  hive.  The  queen 
must,  of  course,  not  be  shaken  in  this  way.  The  advantages 
of  having  colonies  develop  at  about  the  same  rate  and  of 
reaching  the  honey-flow  equally  strong  in  bees,  are  as  fol- 
lows :  (1)  the  colonies  are  ready  for  a  given  manipulation  at 
the  same  time,  thus  allowing  the  work  to  be  well  systema- 
tized; (2)  less  hive-bodies  are  needed  than  if  strong  colo- 
nies are  given  supers  in  accordance  with  their  individual  needs ; 
(3)  when  properly  done,  equalizing  probably  results  in  an 
actual  increase  in  the  total  number  of  bees  in  the  apiary, 
since  every  queen  is  more  nearly  capable  of  egg-laying  to 
her  full  capacity  and  no  queen  is  restricted  by  having  only 
a  small  number  of  workers  to  feed  her  brood ;  (4)  less  manipu- 
lation is  necessary  when  the  honey-flow  begins  (especially 
in  comb-honey  production)  in  sorting  combs  of  brood  and 
in  reducing  the  brood  to  one  hive-body,  if  this  is  practiced ; 
(5)  the  brood  is  compact  and  this  is  especially  desirable  in 
comb-honey  production. 

The  work  of  equalizing  colonies  is  considerable  and  the 
beekeeper  must  determine  for  himself  whether  it  is  profit- 
able. In  the  management  of  out-apiaries,  this  work  neces- 
sitates extra  trips  which  come  at  a  time  when  the  average 
beekeeper  has  all  the  work  that  he  can  do.  Making  colonies 
all  in  one  mold  often  fails  to  bring  to  light  the  deficiencies 
of  some  queens  and  the  superior  qualities  of  others  for 
breeding  stock.  If  a  brood  disease  is  present  or  is  even 
known  to  be  present  in  the  neighborhood,  there  is  danger  in 
moving  combs  about  so  freely. 

Clipping  queens. 

The  clipping  of  the  wings  of  queens  is  advantageous  in 
the  control  of  swarms,  as  will  be  shown  later,  and  to  find 
queens  in  the  spring  is  easier  than  later.  In  clipping  the 
queen,  she  is  lifted  from  the  comb,  held  securely  but  gently 
between  the  thumb  and  index  finger  of  the  left  hand  and  a 


Spring  Management  261 

wing  is  cut  off  with  fine  scissors.  The  queen  may  be  held 
with  her  wing  against  wood,  when  it  may  be  cut  with  a  sharp 
penknife,  but  scissors  are  safer,  at  least  for  the  beginner. 
Some  beekeepers  clip  the  queen's  wing  when  she  is  introduced, 
in  case  queens  are  mated  from  nuclei,  but  some  colonies  may 
rear  queens  without  the  knowledge  of  the  owner  and  an 
examination  for  undipped  queens  in  the  spring  will  greatly 
reduce  swarms  which  issue  with  queens  capable  of  flight. 
Some  beekeepers,  so  that  they  can  tell  a  queen's  age,  clip 
opposite  wings  on  alternate  years  or  make  a  distinctive  cut 
each  year.  It  may  perhaps  be  well  to  warn  the  beginner 
against  clipping  the  wings  of  an  unmated  queen.  If  egg- 
laying  is  progressing  regularly  the  queen  is  of  course  mated. 

Summary  of  favorable  spring  conditions. 

The  conditions  favorable  to  the  rapid  increase  in  the  size 
of  the  colony  in  the  spring  may  be  restated  as  follows : 
(1)  a  large  number  of  vigorous  workers,  due  to  successful 
wintering,  (2)  a  prolific  queen,  (3)  abundant  stores  properly 
located  in  the  hive  so  as  to  be  easily  accessible  to  the  bees, 
(4)  favorable  weather  conditions,  (5)  fresh  pollen  and  nectar 
and  water  for  the  bees,  (6)  a  proUfic  race  or  strain  of  bees, 
(7)  good  brood  combs  of  worker  cells  in  quantity  sufficient 
for  the  needs  of  the  colony. 

QUESTIONABLE  MANIPULATIONS 

The  manipulations  previously  discussed  in  this  chapter 
are  not  all  practiced  by  all  beekeepers  but  they  are  not  the 
subject  of  controversy.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  two 
spring  manipulations  that  have  been  the  subject  of  much 
discussion  by  beekeepers  and  they  are  still  in  dispute.  These 
are  spring  stimulative  feeding  and  the  spreading  of  the  brood. 

Stimulative  feeding. 

So  long  as  nectar  is  coming  to  the  hive  in  abundance,  the 
colony  is  stimulated  to  the  maximum  brood-rearing  possible 


262  Beekeeping 

in  proportion  to  the  population.  Frequently,  however, 
there  are  periods  when  from  a  lack  of  nectar-secretion  or 
inclement  weather,  no  fresh  supply  of  food  is  obtained.  It 
is  asserted  by  some  that  the  feeding  of  a  thin  sugar  syrup  at 
this  time  in  small  quantities  acts  just  as  a  natural  honey- 
flow,  stimulating  the  bees  to  greater  activity  in  brood-rear- 
ing and  resulting  in  the  maximum  strength  of  colony  at  the 
time  of  the  honey-flow.  Since  feeding  requires  some  manip- 
ulation of  the  colony  which  is  not  beneficial  in  inclement 
weather,  many  beekeepers  believe  that  by  providing  an 
abundance  of  food  in  the  fall  or  by  giving  stores  rapidly  in 
the  spring  the  colony  receives  all  the  stimulus  to  brood- 
rearing  that  it  should  have  and  that  stimulative  feeding  is 
not  desirable.  This  is  obviously  a  question  especially  for 
the  northern  beekeeper.  If  a  colony  is  short  of  stores,  combs 
of  honey  may  be  given  it.  If  a  colony  has  wintered  well, 
has  a  good  queen,  is  in  a  large  hive  abundantly  supplied 
with  stores  and  is  well  protected  from  changes  in  tempera- 
ture, it  is  doubtful  whether  it  can  be  stimulated  to  much 
greater  brood-rearing  than  these  conditions  will  bring  about. 
Even  if  stimulative  feeding  results  in  increased  brood-rear- 
ing, as  it  may  under  some  circumstances,  the  beekeeper 
may  still  find  it  to  be  an  unprofitable  practice.  If  he  is 
managing  several  apiaries,  the  work  of  going  to  all  of  them 
daily,  or  even  less  frequently,  is  considerable,  and  he  may 
find  it  more  profitable  simply  to  operate  more  colonies  to 
make  up  for  the  difference.  If  stimulative  feeding  is  prac- 
ticed, it  is  usually  best  to  feed  warm  syrup  in  the  evenings 
so  that  the  bees  will  not  fly  as  a  result  of  the  feeding  and  so 
that  robbing  will  not  be  started. 

Spreading  the  hrood. 

Spreading  the  brood  is  an  even  more  debated  question. 
If  the  brood-cluster  is  divided  and  an  empty  comb  is  inserted, 
the  bees  will  attempt  to  cover  all  the  brood  and,  in  so  doing, 
that  part  of  the  empty  comb  which  intervenes  will  be  kept 
warm  enough  so  that  the  queen  will  lay  eggs  therein.     When 


Spring  Management  263 

this  new  brood  is  well  started,  the  manipulation  may  be 
repeated  and  still  more  eggs  will  be  laid.  This  is  attractive 
in  theory  but  in  practice  is  attended  with  danger.  The 
bees  may  not  attempt  to  cover  both  portions  of  the  divided 
brood,  resulting  in  loss,  or,  because  of  exceptionally  cold 
weather,  they  may  contract  the  cluster  and  leave  the  out- 
side brood  to  die.  The  beginner  should  by  all  means  leave 
the  amount  of  brood  to  be  determined  by  the  bees,  confining 
his  work  to  the  supplying  of  protection,  stores  and  room 
for  the  expansion  of  the  brood. 

If  the  giving  of  abundant  protection,  stores  and  room 
for  the  maximum  advantageous  expansion  of  the  brood  will 
cause  the  colony,  from  its  own  instinct,  to  reach  its  maximum 
strength  in  time  for  the  storage  of  the  crop,  then  additional 
manipulations  in  stimulative  feeding  and  in  spreading  of  the 
brood,  even  though  they  may  do  no  harm,  are  non-essential. 
They  are,  therefore,  to  be  condemned  for  the  commercial 
apiary.  If  the  favorable  conditions  enumerated  do  not 
bring  the  necessary  strength  of  colony  and  if  stimulative 
feeding  will,  then  these  manipulations  are  justifiable.  If 
the  period  for  brood-rearing  previous  to  the  beginning  of 
the  honey-flow  is  short,  rapid  brood-rearing  becomes  more 
important.  This  is  usually  the  case  in  northern  localities. 
It  is  safe  to  say,  however,  that  stimulative  feeding  and  spread- 
ing of  the  brood  should  not  be  practiced  early  in  the  spring  but 
should  be  confined  to  a  period  of  six  or  eight  weeks  just  previ- 
ous to  the  particular  honey-flow  for  which  the  beekeeper  is 
building  up  his  colonies.  If  the  main  crop  is  in  late  summer, 
the  beekeeper  need  not  force  his  bees  in  the  spring.  In  some 
locahties,  the  season  is  made  up  of  a  series  of  honey-flows  of 
about  equal  importance.  If  there  are  long  intervals  between 
honey-flows,  the  beekeeper  must  see  that  brood-rearing  is  at 
its  best  during  a  period  of  six  or  eight  weeks  before  each  flow. 

Substitutes  for  pollen. 

Beekeepers  have  repeatedly  noticed  that  during  a  short- 
age in  the  supply  of  pollen,  bees  will  pack  meal  or  sawdust 


264  Beekeeping 

on  their  legs,  just  as  they  do  pollen,  and  will  carry  it  to  the 
hive.  There  are  also  reports  of  coal  dust  being  carried  in 
this  way.  After  observing  bees  carry  in  rye  flour  from  a 
neighboring  mill,  Dzierzon  put  some  in  the  apiary  where  the 
bees  could  get  it  readily  and  they  carried  it  in  eagerly.  It  is 
still  held  by  many  beekeepers  that  bees  should  be  given  rye 
flour  or  pea,  oat  or  corn  meal  in  the  spring,  these  being 
considered  more  suitable  foods  than  wheat  flour.  These 
substitutes  are  chemically  not  very  similar  to  pollen,  and 
observations  as  to  the  effects  of  them  on  the  development 
of  the  brood  are  badly  needed.  In  fact,  it  can  scarcely  be 
said  that  we  know  that  the  giving  of  substitutes  for  pollen 
is  serviceable  in  brood-rearing,  and  one  cannot  but  wonder 
what  Dzierzon's  advice  would  have  been  if  his  apiary  had 
been  near  a  coal  mine.  Because  of  the  unusual  things  that 
bees  do,  we  are  not  justified  in  concluding  that  the  giving 
of  substitutes  for  pollen  is  useless,  however,  and  no  harmful 
results  are  recorded  from  the  practice.  It  is  a  promising 
field  for  study,  for  there  is  sometimes  a  scarcity  of  pollen  just 
when  it  is  most  needed. 


CHAPTER  XV 

SWARM  CONTROL  AND  INCREASE 

At  the  close  of  the  chapter  on  the  manipulation  of  bees, 
it  is  pointed  out  that  success  in  honey-production  depends 
(1)  on  getting  bees  in  time  for  the  harvest  and  (2)  on  keeping 
them  in  the  proper  condition  for  storing.  The  first  require- 
ment is  discussed  in  the  chapter  immediately  preceding. 
However,  if  a  colony  of  bees  builds  up  rapidly  to  full  strength, 
the  beekeeper  is  confronted  by  the  problem  of  preventing  it 
from  dividing  its  forces,  thereby  causing  him  to  fail  in  get- 
ting the  maximum  crop,  or  even  to  get  no  surplus  from  it. 
This  second  problem  is  mainly  involved  in  swarm  control, 
but  also  includes  the  providing  of  other  conditions  favorable 
for  storing. 

Loss  from  division  of  the  working  force. 

In  the  days  of  the  box-hive,  success  in  beekeeping  was 
measured  by  the  number  of  swarms  that  issued,  but  the 
beekeeper  now  knows  that  he  cannot  increase  the  number 
of  his  colonies  during  a  honey-flow  without  curtailing  his 
crop,  unless  the  increase  is  made  from  brood  that  would 
emerge  too  late  for  the  resulting  bees  to  assist  in  gathering 
nectar.  Success  in  manipulation  is  now  measured  by  the 
results  the  beekeeper  attains  in  preventing  swarming.  If 
swarms  issue,  as  they  will  at  times  in  spite  of  every  known 
precaution,  the  beekeeper  then  aims  to  use  the  bees  so  as 
still  to  keep  them  together  and  thus  to  overcome  the  danger 
of  a  reduced  crop.  Because  the  experienced  beekeeper  so 
well  knows  that  swarming  endangers  his  crop  and  also  that 
Bwarms  may  be  lost,  the  usual  statements  concerning  the 

265 


266  Beekeeping 

beauty  of  a  swarm  fail  to  meet  a  ready  response  from 
him.  To  him,  swarming  is  the  one  great  handicap  in  bee- 
keeping. 

The  necessity  of  keeping  the  bees  together  cannot  be 
overestimated.  If  a  colony  is  divided  just  before  or  during 
the  honey-flow,  the  two  parts  fail  to  produce  as  much  sur- 
plus honey  in  that  honey-flow  as  the  same  bees  would  if 
they  had  remained  in  one  colony  and  in  normal  condition. 
Furthermore,  when  bees  are  preparing  to  swarm,  their  con- 
dition is  not  so  favorable  for  gathering.  Whether  there  is 
some  physiological  difference  or  whether  the  lack  of  concen- 
trated effort  in  gathering  is  due  to  an  unbalanced  condition 
of  the  colony  population  is  not  known,  but  the  results  of  the 
swarming  preparations  are  shown  in  a  decrease  in  the  crop. 
In  successful  honey-production,  it  therefore  becomes  essen- 
tial that  every  effort  be  made  to  reduce  and  to  overcome  the 
tendency  to  swarm. 

Variation  in  swarming. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that,  in  any  region,  swarming 
usually  occurs  at  a  certain  season  or  seasons  and  rarely  occurs 
throughout  the  entire  active  season.  It  is  most  common 
in  those  sections  of  the  North  in  which  the  main  honey-flow 
occurs  in  early  summer.  If  there  are  two  heavy  honey- 
flows,  swarming  may  occur  in  connection  with  each  one,  al- 
though it  is  usually  less  troublesome  in  the  later  one.  The 
crowded  condition  of  the  hive  in  the  production  of  comb- 
honey  is  favorable  for  the  development  of  the  swarming  tend- 
ency and,  since  the  early  summer  flows  of  the  North  are 
the  best  for  comb-honey,  the  control  of  swarming  is  most 
difficult  in  northern  comb-honey  apiaries. 

That  many  comb-honey  producers  crowd  their  colonies 
more  than  is  necessary  or  desirable  will  be  shown  in  a  later 
chapter,  but,  even  with  the  most  skillful  manipulation  of 
the  supers  and  with  the  proper  manipulations  throughout, 
there  is  always  more  crowding  than  is  necessary  in  extracted- 
honey  production.     Swarm   control  is  therefore   chiefly  a 


Swarm  Control  and  Increase  267 

problem  for  the  northern  comb-honey  producer,  and  from 
these  men  we  have  obtained  the  best  systems  for  controUing 
swarming  and  also  the  most  Ught  on  its  cause. 

In  the  South,  where  the  honey-flows  are  longer  and  less 
intense,  swarming  is  less  frequent,  and  this  is  also  true  in  the 
irrigated  regions  of  the  West.  In  those  regions  of  the  tropics 
where  the  honey-flows  are  practically  continuous,  there  may 
be  a  kind  of  swarming  season,  but  swarms  are  so  much  less 
frequent  that  the  northern  beekeeper  would  not  consider 
the  control  of  swarming  a  serious  problem  in  such  a 
locality. 

Variation  in  colonies  in  respect  to  swarming  preparations. 

In  any  apiary  and  in  almost  any  season,  colonies  differ 
greatly  in  their  propensity  to  swarm.  (1)  There  are  some 
which  show  no  indication  of  swarming.  These  are  the  very 
best  for  honey-production  and  the  beekeeper  should  aim 
to  increase  their  number.  (2)  Other  colonies  show  a  tend- 
ency to  swarm  by  starting  queen  cells,  but  may  be  deterred 
either  by  cutting  out  the  newly  started  queen  cells  or  by  tak- 
ing away  some  combs  of  brood.  (3)  Still  other  colonies 
are  more  persistent  and  will  swarm  if  the  honey-flow  continues 
unless  they  are  subjected  to  some  radical  manipulations. 
(4)  Some  colonies  whose  queens  fail  swarm  in  connection 
with  the  supersedure  of  the  old  queen. 

''Of  160  colonies  run  for  comb  honey  that  were  fair  sub- 
jects for  comparison,  13f  per  cent  went  through  the  season 
without  ever  offering  to  start  queen-cells;  12|  per  cent 
started  cells  one  or  more  times,  but  gave  it  up  when  their 
cells  were  destroyed ;  and  73|  per  cent  seemed  so  bent  on 
swarming  that  they  were  treated  by  being  kept  queenless 
10  or  15  days.  The  colonies  that  were  left  with  their  queens 
all  the  time  averaged  36|  per  cent  more  sections  than  those 
that  were  treated.  But  that's  better  than  they  would  have 
done  if  left  queenless  for  21  days,  which  would  be  the  case 
practically  if  swarms  were  shaken."  —  C.  C.  Miller,  1905, 
^'Gleanings  in  Bee  Culture,"  XXXIII,  p.  1174. 


268  Beekeeping 

Direction  of  the  beekeeper's  efforts. 

The  work  of  the  beekeeper  in  swarm  control  may  be 
divided  into  two  phases,  for  his  manipulation  of  a  colony 
depends  on  his  recognition  of  the  degree  of  persistence  in 
swarming  which  a  colony  exhibits.  He  may  try  to  increase 
the  number  of  colonies  which  make  no  preparations  to  swarm 
and  may  prevent  swarming  in  the  colonies  which  respond 
to  simple  measures.  To  these  manipulations  may  be  given 
the   name   preventive  measures. 

However,  the  beekeeper  finds  some  colonies  which  he 
knows  from  experience  cannot  be  kept  from  swarming  by 
cutting  out  queen  cells,  by  the  removal  of  a  frame  or  two  of 
brood  or  by  other  simple  expedients.  To  describe  the  dif- 
ference which  the  beekeeper  recognizes  is  somewhat  difficult, 
but,  in  general,  if  the  larvae  in  the  queen  cells  are  still  small, 
preventive  measures  may  be  used.  In  cases  of  the  building 
of  queen  cells  obviously  due  to  supersedure  or  when  the 
working  force  is  relatively  not  so  strong  as  the  brood,  an 
artificial  swarm  should  not  be  made.  To  the  more  drastic 
measures,  used  on  colonies  with  advanced  larvae  in  the  queen 
cells  which  will  persist  in  their  preparations  to  swarm,  the 
name  remedial  measures  ^  is  proposed. 

PREVENTIVE   MEASURES 

These  may  be  grouped  under  the  three  heads  given  be- 
low. Whatever  the  system  of  management,  the  earliest 
manipulations  in  swarm  control  will  usually  be  preventive 
measures,  for  the  beekeeper  cannot  know  very  far  in  advance 
which  colonies  will  fail  to  respond  to  the  less  drastic  manipu- 
lations and  in  any  event  these  will  deter  swarming  in  the 
larger  number  of  colonies. 

1  In  Demuth's  bulletin  on  "Comb  Honey,"  he  uses  the  term  "control 
measures,"  but  the  words  "preventive"  and  "control"  are  not  mutually 
exclusive. 


Swarm  Control  and  Increase  269 

Breeding. 

Some  beekeepers  make  a  practice  of  requeening  colonies 
which  swarm  with  young  queens  which  are  the  progeny  of 
queens  whose  colonies  have  not  swarmed,  in  an  effort  to 
eliminate  swarming  by  selection  of  non-swarming  stock.  In 
a  sense,  this  work  has  failed,  for  after  years  of  such  selection 
the  bees  still  swarm  under  favorable  conditions,  but  the 
testimony  of  many  practical  beekeepers  indicates  that  the 
percentage  of  colonies  that  swarm  under  proper  management 
is  reduced  by  selection  of  non-swarming  stock.  Since  the 
men  who  are  making  this  selection  are,  at  the  same  time, 
improving  the  manipulations  in  swarm  control  and  are  be- 
coming more  skilled  in  this  work,  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to 
measure  the  value  of  this  effort.  Since  requeening  from 
good  stock  is  a  highly  commendable  practice  for  other  rea- 
sons, it  seems  advisable  to  choose  breeders  from  those  which 
have  not  swarmed,  wherever  possible.  If  breeding  queens 
are  chosen  from  the  colonies  which  show  the  best  results  in 
honey  crops,  these  queens  will  usually  be  from  colonies  that 
have  not  swarmed  during  the  season. 

Mechanical  devices. 

Efforts  have  been  made  to  devise  a  hive  which  will  give 
to  the  bees  an  environment  in  which  the  swarming  tendency 
will  usually  not  be  developed,  a  well-known  example  of  which 
is  the  Aspinwall  hive,  with  slatted  frames  between  the  combs. 
Similar  slats  between  the  frames  of  ordinary  hives  have 
been  used.  Since  a  non-swarming  hive  is  needed  especially 
in  the  production  of  comb-honey,  it  would  appear  that  there 
should  be  provision  for  more  crowding  of  the  bees  than  is 
given  in  the  Aspinwall  hive,  but  it  is  perhaps  too  early  to 
pass  judgment  on  the  efforts  in  this  line.  A  deep  (two  inch) 
bottom  board  with  a  large  entrance  (Miller,  "  Fifty  Years 
among  the  Bees  ")  leaves  space  under  the  frames  in  which 
may  be  placed  a  slatted  rack  during  the  active  season.  This 
provides  abundant  ventilation  and  room  for  bees  and  may 


270  Beekeeping 

act  as  a  preventive  of  swarming,  although  it  is  not  so  claimed 
by  Doctor  Miller.  The  use  of  large  hives  in  the  production 
of  extracted-honey,  which  so  successfully  reduces  swarming, 
may  be  considered  as  the  giving  of  an  environment  unsuit- 
able for  the  development  of  the  swarming  tendency  rather 
than  the  control  of  swarming  by  manipulation. 

Preventive  manipulations. 

The  most  common  methods  of  preventing  swarming  are 
by  manipulation,  probably  because  success,  if  attained,  is 
immediately  recognizable.  Greater  progress  has  been  made 
in  the  devising  of  manipulations  for  this  purpose  than  is 
shown  in  breeding  or  in  the  invention  of  mechanical  devices. 
The  manipulations  used  by  the  beekeeper  in  swarrri  preven- 
tion fall  into  the  following  classes :  (1)  the  introduction  of 
young  queens  (preferably  from  superior  stock,  possibly  the 
progeny  of  queens  whose  colonies  have  not  swarmed) ;  (2) 
the  prevention  of  crowding  in  the  brood-chamber  previous 
to  the  honey-flow,  the  crowding  incident  to  comb-honey  pro- 
duction being  brought  about  only  after  supers  are  put  on. 
This  is  often  accomplished  by  giving  an  extra  hive-body  for 
early  brood-rearing,  so  that  there  is  abundant  room  for 
brood  and  stores ;  (3)  the  use  of  bait  sections  or  extracting 
combs  (Fig.  133)  in  the  first  super  in  comb-honey  production, 
thus  inducing  the  bees  to  begin  work  in  the  supers  promptly 
to  avoid  excessive  and  unnecessary  crowding  in  the  brood- 
chamber;  (4)  the  proper  manipulation  of  supers  in  comb- 
honey  production  (p..  314)  to  reduce  crowding  as  far  as  pos- 
sible (possibly  also  to  remove  young  bees  from  the  brood- 
chamber)  ;  (5)  the  use  of  only  good  worker  comb  in  the 
brood-chamber,  to  reduce  the  number  of  cells  unavailable 
for  worker  eggs;  (6)  ventilation  (by  raising  the  hive  on 
blocks,  or  by  large  entrances) ;  (7)  shade,  to  prevent  over- 
heating; (8)  the  removal  of  combs  of  brood  which  are  re- 
placed by  empty  combs  or  sheets  of  foundation  to  relieve 
the  congestion  (see  also  this  manipulation  under  remedial 
measures) ;    (9)  the  removal  of  queen  cells  soon  after  they 


Swarm  Control  and  Increase  271 

are  started,  since  if  queen  cells  are  well  advanced,  their 
removal  is  not  so  effective  in  preventing  swarming.  This 
usually  requires  an  examination  of  the  brood-chamber  once 
in  seven  to  ten  days. 

Miller's  methods. 

To  make  these  manipulations  clear,  it  may  be  well  to 
recapitulate  by  describing  the  system  used  by  C.  C. 
Miller.  To  provide  abundant  bees  in  time  for  the  harvest, 
as  well  as  to  eliminate  any  tendency  to  early  swarming, 
strong  colonies  are  given  an  extra  hive-body,  during  the  rapid 
spring  breeding,  all  the  combs  being  built  to  the  bottom 
bar  of  the  frame  so  far  as  practical.  Colonies  are  requeened 
whenever  a  queen  shows  signs  of  inability  to  keep  up  the  full 
strength  of  colony,  these  queens  being  from  mothers  whose 
colonies  have  not  swarmed.  When  the  honey-flow  begins, 
a  single  hive-body  for  each  colony  is  filled  with  full  combs  of 
brood  (any  additional  combs  of  brood  being  used  in  other 
less  populous  colonies,  for  increase  or  for  other  purposes) 
and  each  colony  is  given  a  super  containing  one  or  more  bait 
sections,  into  which  the  bees  go  at  once,  if  the  honey-flow 
permits.^  Doctor  Miller  is  a  master  in  the  manipulation  of 
supers  and  the  system  used  by  him  is  described  in  a  later 
chapter  (p.  314).  His  hives  have  wide  entrances  (2  inches 
deep)  and  are  protected  by  trees  from  the  heat  of  the  sun. 
Frequent  examinations  are  made  to  remove  newly  started 
queen  cells.  The  crops  which  Doctor  Miller  obtains  are 
so  much  greater  than  those  of  other  beekeepers  similarly 
situated,  or  even  than  those  in  better  locations,  that  his 
methods  should  be  carefully  studied.  He  uses  the  8-frame 
Langstroth  hive,  but  does  not  especially  recommend  it.  It 
should  also  be  added  that  Doctor  Miller  is  a  firm  advocate 

1  Doctor  Miller  once  asked  the  author,  in  all  seriousness,  what  bee- 
keepers mean  by  their  reported  difficulty  in  getting  bees  to  work  in  the 
supers  promptly.  Probably  his  bees  are  so  much  better  prepared  to  gather 
a  surplus  than  are  those  of  many  beekeepers  that  in  his  own  apiary  he  has 
not  seen  for  years  conditions  which  occur  yearly  in  the  apiaries  of  many 
beekeepers. 


272  Beekeeping 

of  the  improvement  of  stock  by  selection  and  he  attributes 
much  of  his  success  to  his  efforts  in  this  Hne. 

REMEDIAL   MEASURES 

The  preventive  measures  previously  mentioned  are  usually 
sufficient  to  control  swarming  in  a  colony  used  in  extracted- 
honey  production  but,  in  the  crowded  conditions  of  the 
comb-honey  hive,  in  a  good  season,  there  will  probably  be 
some  colonies  that  will  persist  in  their  preparations  to 
swarm.  In  a  poor  season,  when  the  colony  lacks  the  stimu- 
lus of  nectar  coming  to  the  hive,  it  has  not  the  conditions  nor 
the  number  of  bees  necessary  for  swarming,  but  when  con- 
ditions during  early  brood-rearing  are  favorable  and  when 
there  is  abundance  of  nectar  during  the  main  honey-flow, 
there  is  also  usually  a  larger  population,  and  preparation  for 
swarming  may  be  begun  and  often  completed  in  most  of  the 
colonies  in  the  apiary.  It  then  rests  with  the  beekeeper  so 
to  manage  these  colonies  that,  by  keeping  the  bees  together 
and  by  keeping  them  in  working  condition  (p.  85),  he  may 
obtain  practically  as  large  a  crop  as  if  swarming  had  not 
occurred.  He  now  aims  not  so  much  to  prevent  swarming 
as  to  satisfy  the  instinct  and  to  overcome  the  evils  incident 
to  division  of  the  working  force.  The  method  to  be  adopted 
depends  largely  on  the  size  and  location  of  the  apiary.  If 
the  bees  are  all  in  one  apiary,  where  they  are  under  the 
immediate  care  of  the  beekeeper  every  day,  the  bees  may  be 
permitted  to  swarm  naturally  but,  in  comb-honey  produc- 
tion especially,  colonies  in  out-apiaries  can  be  expected  to 
produce  more,  without  the  loss  of  swarms,  if  by  some  reme- 
dial manipulation  the  swarming  tendency  is  controlled  to  suit 
the  convenience  of  the  beekeeper.  If  an  assistant  is  kept  at 
each  apiary,  it  becomes  essentially  like  the  home  apiary, 
but  it  rarely  pays  to  keep  so  much  help. 

Control  of  natural  swarms. 

Swarms  which  issue  may  be  managed  in  several  ways. 
(1)  They  may  be  allowed  to  fly  into  the  air  and  cluster  on 


Swarm  Control  and  Increase  273 

some  support,  after  which  they  may  be  hived  and  placed  in 
the  desired  location.  When  the  bees  have  clustered  they 
may  be  shaken  into  a  box  or  basket  and  then  placed  in  front 
of  the  hive  that  they  are  to  occupy.  They  should  be  placed 
so  that  some  of  the  bees  find  the  entrance  promptly,  other- 
wise the  bees  may  begin  their  characteristic  march  in  the 
wrong  direction  (p.  68).  If  the  bees  cluster  on  a  limb  which 
can  be  cut,  this  may  be  removed  with  the  adhering  bees  and 
carried  to  the  hive  and  the  bees  shaken  off.  If  the  cluster 
forms  on  the  trunk  of  a  tree  or  post  or  in  some  other  place 
from  which  they  cannot  be  readily  removed,  a  box  contain- 
ing a  piece  of  comb  (Fig.  47)  may  be  placed  above  and 
preferably  in  contact  with  the  cluster  and  the  swarm  will 
soon  move  into  the  box,  where  it  may  be  handled.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  get  the  queen,  as  otherwise  the  bees  may 
again  take  wing  and  return  to  her. 

(2)  If  the  queen's  wings  are  clipped  (p.  260),  she  is  unable 
to  fly  with  the  swarm  and,  after  leaving  the  hive,  she  falls 
to  the  ground.  The  swarm  generally  does  not  cluster  if 
the  queen  is  not  with  it  or,  if  it  does  cluster,  it  soon  takes 
wing  and  returns  to  the  old  hive,  provided  it  does  not  have 
a  virgin  queen  with  it  as  is  sometimes  the  case  if  swarming 
has  been  unduly  delayed.  In  the  meantime,  the  beekeeper 
should  find  the  queen  on  the  ground  and  place  her  with  the 
returning  bees.,  after  adjusting  the  hives  as  described  later. 

(3)  If  a  queen  and  drone  trap  (Fig.  30)  is  placed  over  the 
entrance,  workers  can  leave,  but  when  the  queen  attempts 
to  leave  she  is  retarded  by  the  trap.  She  then,  in  her  at- 
tempts to  escape,  usually  goes  into  the  upper  part  of  the  trap 
and  is  unable  to  return.  The  swarming  bees  then  behave 
as  they  do  when  the  queen's  wings  are  clipped,  and  soon 
return.  To  allow  the  queen  to  go  below  with  the  bees  it  is 
necessary  only  to  pull  the  tin  slide  which  is  shown  partly 
drawn  in  the  illustration.  Here  too  the  hives  are  adjusted 
as  when  the  queen  is  clipped  and  of  course  the  swarm  is  not 
left  in  the  old  brood-chamber.  The  inexperienced  beekeeper 
should  perhaps  be  warned  not  to  leave  a  queen  trap  on  the 


274  Beekeeping 

entrance  at  all  times  for  it  will  prevent  virgin  queens  from 
leaving  the  hive  to  mate.  Drones  of  course  are  also  pre- 
vented from  leaving  and  if  they  are  abundant  they  may 
crowd  the  entrance,  with  disastrous  results. 

(4)  As  the  swarm  issues,  a  wire-cloth  cage  may  be  placed 
over  the  hive  or  fitted  over  the  entrance.  The  bees  then 
cluster  in  the  top  of  the  cage,  without  causing  confusion  in 
the  apiary,  and  may  be  hived  when  convenient. 

Automatic  hivers. 

Several  years  ago  the  desirability  of  some  automatic  hiv- 
ing device  was  much  discussed  and  numerous  efforts  were 
made  to  devise  apparatus  which  would  deposit  or  lead  the 
issuing  swarm  to  a  new  hive.  These  arrangements  were 
devised  to  place  the  swarm  in  a  new  location  and  beekeepers 
now  prefer  that  it  be  returned  to  the  old  location. 

Location  for  the  swarm. 

After  a  swarm  has  issued,  the  old  practice  was  to  hive  it 
in  a  new  location,  thus  dividing  the  working  force.  The 
beekeeper  should  manipulate  the  two  parts  of  the  original 
colony  so  as  to  prevent  such  a  division.  A  method  some- 
times used  is  to  return  the  swarm  without  the  queen  to  the 
old  hive  and  about  a  week  later  (before  the  developing 
queens  emerge)  the  queen  cells  are  cut  and  the  colony  is 
requeened  later.  The  usual  method  is  to  remove  the  hive- 
body  containing  the  brood  while  the  swarm  is  out  and  to 
return  the  swarm  to  a  new  hive  on  the  old  stand.  By  either 
of  these  methods,  the  swarm  is  augmented  by  the  returning 
field  bees  and,  if  there  were  supers  on  the  colony  before 
swarming,  they  are  kept  with  the  swarm  and  the  bees 
promptly  return  to  their  work.  The  most  common  error  of 
the  inexperienced  beekeeper  in  swarm  management  is  to 
put  the  supers  on  the  ''parent  colony"  (the  one  which  re- 
tains the  brood).  The  population  of  the  parent  colony  is 
reduced  by  the  loss  of  the  field  bees  and  after-swarming  is 
thereby  made  less  probable.     These  manipulations  make  it 


Swarm  Control  and  Increase 


275 


necessary  that  the  beekeeper  be  present  when  the  swarm 
issues,  or  soon  after,  and  they  are  therefore  not  suitable  for 
out-apiary  management. 

Disposition  of  the  brood  after  swarming. 

The  so-called  parent  colony  may  be  sufficiently  populous  to 
cast  an  after-swarm  and  should  therefore  be  managed  so  as  to 
prevent  this  and  also  so  that  the  emerging  bees  shall  be  useful, 
especially  if  the  honey-flow  will  probably  be  of  long  duration. 
The  parent  colony  may  be  broken  up  at  once  by  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  brood  to  other  colonies,  while  the  adhering 
bees  are  added  to  the  swarm.  Another  method  is  to  destroy 
all  queen  cells  except  one  and  to  allow  the  parent  colony  to 
remain  intact.  If  the  parent  colony  is  left  to  requeen  itself 
by  the  emergence  of  the  developing  queens,  it  often  casts 
an  after-swarm,  so  it  is  safer  either  to  remove  all  queen 
cells  except  one  or  to  remove  them  all  and  give  a  laying 
queen  or  virgin  queen. 

Still  another  method  is  to  reduce  the  population  of  the 
parent   colony    just   before    the    young 
queens  emerge  and  to  add  the  emerging 
bees  to  the  swarm.     If  the  parent  colony 
is  put  back  beside  the  swarm  after  the 

swarm  is  hived, 
is  left  there  for 
a  week  and  is 
then  removed  to 
a  new  location, 
it  is  so  reduced 
when  the  virgin 
queens  emerge 
that  an  after- 
swarm  is  not  cast.  A  modification 
of  this  method  to  be  preferred 
when  the  clipping  of  queens  is  prac- 
ticed or  when  the  queen  trap  is  used  is  to  set  the  parent 
colony  to  one  side  with  its  entrance  about  90°  from  its  former 


—^  1 


Fig.  112.  —  Manipulation  to 
reduce  population  of  par- 
ent colony  —  second  po- 
sition. Parent  colony  is 
now  in  hive  without  supers. 


Fig.  111.  —  Manipula- 
tion to  reduce  popu- 
lation of  parent 
colony  —  first  posi- 
tion. Previous  to 
swarming. 


276 


Beekeeping 


as  «> 


Fig.  113. — Manipulation 
to  reduce  population  of 
parent  colony  —  third 
position. 


location  (Figs.  Ill  and  112),  so  that  all  returning  field  bees 
join  the  swarm.  As  the  brood  emerges,  the  young  bees  be- 
come accustomed  to  the  location  of 
their  hive.  In  a  couple  of  days  the 
parent  colony  is  turned  about  half 
way  around  toward  its  former  posi- 
tion (Fig.  113),  and,  after  the  bees 
again  become  accustomed  to  the 
change,  it  is  moved  to  a  position 
parallel  to  that  of  the  new  colony 
(Fig.  114).  If  within  seven  or  eight 
days  of  the  issuing  of  the  swarm,  the 
parent  colony  is  removed  to  a  new 
location,  the  young  bees  in  flying  out  join  the  swarm, 
thereby  considerably  reducing  the  parent  colony. 

When  the  parent  colony  is  moved,  part  of  the  bees  may  be 
brushed  in  front  of  the  entrance  of  the 
swarm,  leaving  some  to  care  for  the 
brood  but  not  enough  to  induce  an  after- 
swarm.  The  parent  colony  may  be 
used  for  increase  or  the  bees  as  they 
emerge  may  still  be  added  to  the  swarm 
or  to  some  other  colony.  Other  methods 
of  using  some  young  bees  or  sealed  brood 
to  advantage  will  be  found  by  the  bee- 
keeper. They  may  be  used  to  build  up 
weak  colonies  or,  if  the  honey-flow  will 
probably  be  long  enough  to  warrant  it, 
two  parent  colonies  may  be  placed  side  by  side.  By  giving 
one  a  queen  and  removing  the  queen  cells  from  the  other, 
they  may  be  united  about  two  weeks  after  the  swarm  issues, 
when  most  of  the  brood  has  emerged  from  the  queenless 
colony,  and  they  are  then  ready  for  supers. 

What  to  use  in  the  hrood-chamher  in  hiving  swarms. 

The  use  of  full  sheets  of  foundation  in  the  brood-frames  has 
the  marked  advantage  of  resulting  in  straight  combs  of  worker 


r^~= 


Fig.  114. — Manipula- 
tion to  reduce  popu- 
lation of  parent 
colony — fourth  po- 
sition. 


Swarm  Control  and  Increase 


277 


cells.  The  comb  is  built  up  rapidly,  in  fact  so  rapidly  as  to 
be  considered  a  disadvantage  at  times,  in  that  brood  is  so 
quickly  reared  that  the  increase  in  population  may  again 
induce  swarming.  The  use  of  full  sheets  of  foundation  may 
increase  the  work  done  in  the  brood-chamber,  at  the  expense 
of  the  surplus. 

Narrow  strips  of  foundation,  perhaps  an  inch  wide  or  less, 
may  be  used,  and  this  usually  results  in  slow  progress  in  the 
construction  of  combs  in  the 
brood-chamber.  The  bees 
then  do  more  work  in  the 
supers,  if  they  have  been 
started,  and  it  is  so  long  be- 
fore the  colony  can  rear  much 
brood  that  they  rarely  at- 
tempt to  swarm  again  in  the 
season.  However,  combs 
built  on  strips  of  foundation 
often  contain  many  drone 
cells,  especially  if  the  comb 
building  in  the  brood-cham- 
ber progresses  faster  than  the 
cells  are  filled  with  eggs  by 
the  queen  or  when  comb  is 
built  outside  the  space  needed 
for  brood.  If  the  parent  colony  has  a  brood  disease,  the  use 
of  strips  of  foundation  is  preferable,  thus  combining  swarm 
management  and  disease  treatment.  When  either  strips  of 
foundation  or  full  sheets  are  used  and  partly  drawn  combs 
are  present  in  comb-honey  supers,  the  queen  may  go  above 
to  lay  eggs  and  this  should  be  prevented  by  the  use  of  the 
queen  excluder  (Fig,  115)  for  a  few  days  or  until  there  is 
room  for  egg-laying  below, '  when  the  excluder  may  be  re- 
moved. If  the  supers  are  left  off  for  a  time,  work  will 
progress  in  the  brood-chamber  so  that  space  for  egg-laying 
will  be  available  there  and  the  queen  will  not  go  to  the  supers. 

One  or  two  empty  combs  may  be  used  in  the  brood-cham- 


FiG.  115. 


Queen  excluder  ("honey 
board"). 


278  Beekeeping 

ber,  the  remaining  spaces  being  filled  with  frames  containing 
full  sheets  of  foundation.  This  prevents  the  storage  of 
pollen  in  the  supers  and  gives  the  queen  a  place  to  lay  eggs 
at  once,  so  that  an  excluder  is  not  necessary.  Swarms  some- 
times desert  a  hive  containing  only  foundation,  but  some 
empty  comb  or  a  comb  containing  some  unsealed  brood  will 
prevent  this.  The  placing  of  foundation  next  to  full  comb 
often  results  in  an  unusual  extension  of  the  side  walls  of  the 
comb  and  a  restriction  of  the  building  out  of  the  foundation. 

Empty  combs,  or  comb  filled  with  honey  or  sealed  brood, 
are  also  sometimes  used.  It  is  claimed  by  some  that,  just 
after  swarming,  bees  secrete  wax  with  a  minimum  expendi- 
ture of  energy  and  with  the  least  consumption  of  honey,  and 
it  is  therefore  believed  that  it  is  wasteful  not  to  give  the 
swarm  an  opportunity  to  secrete  some  wax  in  building  comb. 
If  the  swarm  is  only  moderately  strong,  the  bees  may  confine 
their  efforts  chiefly  to  the  brood-chamber,  if  empty  combs 
are  used. 

In  extracted-honey  production,  these  questions  do  not 
arise,  for  the  beekeeper  can  use  whatever  is  most  convenient 
and,  by  giving  plenty  of  room  for  storage,  the  colony  will 
rarely  swarm  again.  It  therefore  does  not  pay  to  use  strips 
of  foundation  in  the  extracted-honey  apiary. 

In  comb-honey  production,  a  swarm  may  be  hived  in  the 
usual  way  and  then  in  a  day  or  two  the  brood-chamber  may 
be  temporarily  contracted  by  substituting  thick  division 
boards  for  four  or  five  of  the  frames  (in  a  10-frame  hive), 
thus  so  reducing  the  room  in  the  brood-chamber  that  the 
bees  are  driven  to  the  supers.  This  method  may  be  used 
during  a  honey-flow  of  white  honey,  which  is  preferable  for 
comb-honey,  and  when  there  will  probably  be  a  later  honey- 
flow  of  honey  of  a  lower  grade,  which  is  good  enough  to  use 
in  building  up  the  brood-chamber  but  not  of  fine  enough 
quality  for  sections.  If  this  contraction  is  practiced,  and  it 
is  less  frequent  now  than  formerly,  the  contraction  should 
be  to  about  five  frames,  rather  than  a  slight  contraction  to 
perhaps  seven  frames. 


Swarm  Control  and  Increase  279 

Remedial  manipulations. 

The  remedial  measures  so  far  discussed  are  useful  for 
colonies  that  have  swarmed,  in  making  the  most  of  the  parts 
of  the  divided  original  colony.  However,  these  require  al- 
most constant  attention  in  some  seasons  and  this  is  neces- 
sary just  when  the  beekeeper  can  least  afford  to  give  it,  if  he 
is  managing  a  large  number  of  colonies.  Because  of  the 
desirability  of  the  manipulations  being  in  accordance  with 
the  plans  and  schedule  of  the  beekeeper,  rather  than  at  the 
whims  of  the  bees,  as  in  natural  swarming,  beekeepers, 
especially  producers  of  comb-honey,  have  tried  many  ways 
virtually  to  create  the  conditions  which  are  found  after 
swarming,  but  to  do  this  with  advantage  to  the  crop.  By 
such  a  system  the  comb-honey  producer  can  maintain  sev- 
eral apiaries,  visiting  them  at  regular  intervals,  with  a  knowl- 
edge that  swarms  will  not  issue  in  his  absence,  except  in 
those  cases  where  every  rule  seems  to  fail.  However,  the 
losses  can  be  made  so  slight  that  it  does  not  pay  to  keep  an 
assistant  at  each  apiary,  if  the  proper  measures  are  adopted. 
Fortunately  for  the  beekeeper,  bees  give  warning  in  advance 
of  the  probability  of  the  issuing  of  a  swarm  by  building 
queen  cells.  By  examining  each  colony  once  in  seven  to  ten 
days  during  the  swarming  season,  the  beekeeper  can  subject 
colonies  making  these  preparations  to  the  chosen  manipu- 
lation, which  may  be  a  preventive  or  a  remedial  measure, 
depending  on  how  far  preparations  for  swarming  have  pro- 
gressed. If  the  manipulations  given  under  the  title  of  Pre- 
ventive Measures  are  inadequate,  the  colony  may  be  handled 
with  another  end  in  view,  namely,  to  satisfy  the  desire  to 
swarm  and  to  prevent  permanent  division.  It  is  further 
possible,  especially  in  apiaries  where  increase  is  desired,  so 
to  manipulate  every  colony  before  the  swarming  season 
arrives  that  there  will  be  little  swarming,  even  in  comb-honey 
production,  but  since  increase  in  the  number  of  colonies 
during  or  just  before  the  honey-flow  is  at  the  expense  of  the 
crop  from  that  flow,  beekeepers  usually  find  it  advantar 


280  Beekeeping 

geous  not  to  attempt  to  use  remedial  measures  until  neces- 
sary. 

In  the  literature  on  swarm  control,  there  are  dozens  of 
plans  for  accomphshing  this  end,  and  it  is  neither  desirable 
nor  necessary  to  give  all  of  them  or  even  all  of  the  successful 
ones,  for  to  attempt  to  do  so  would  only  be  confusing. 

Unbalanced  condition  of  swarming  colonies. 

If  the  conditions  which  are  found  in  natural  swarming  are 
examined,  it  will  be  recalled  that,  after  the  swarm  issues,  it 
receives  no  additional  young  bees  for  a  period  of  at  least  21 
days  (unless  they  are  given  by  the  beekeeper  in  accordance 
with  some  of  the  plans  previously  outlined).  If,  as  seems 
not  unlikely,  one  of  the  most  important  factors  in  the  cause 
of  swarming  is  a  preponderance  of  young  bees,  this  condition 
is  rectified  for  the  swarm  and  the  bees  become  "satisfied." 
On  the  other  hand,  the  parent  colony  rapidly  increases  the 
percentage  of  young  bees  (unless,  again,  they  are  removed 
by  the  beekeeper)  and  after-swarms  are  not  uncommon, 
unless  the  beekeeper  manipulates  to  prevent  them.  It  thus 
appears  that  the  restoration  of  the  balance  of  the  colony  is 
important  in  bringing  it  to  a  condition  in  which  the  swarm- 
ing tendency  is  lost  and  in  which  the  storing  instinct  becomes 
dominant. 

Break  in  the  emergence  of  brood. 

Whether  this  speculation  is  justified  must  be  determined 
by  future  investigations,  which  are  greatly  needed.  At  any 
rate,  and  this  is  the  point  of  importance  to  the  beekeeper, 
those  practical  manipulations  which  are  successful  in  the 
control  of  swarming,  whether  applied  before  or  after  queen 
cells  are  built,  have  for  their  result  a  single  factor  in  common 
—  a  reduction  or  temporary  cessation  in  the  continuity  of 
the  daily  emergence  of  brood.  There  have  been  numerous 
discussions  of  the  principles  of  swarm  control,  for  this  is  a 
problem  which  has  attracted  the  attention  of  modern  bee- 
keepers to  a  marked  extent,  but  so  far  as  the  author  is  aware 


Swarm  Control  and  Increase  281 

the  existence  of  a  single  underlying  factor  in  all  the  methods 
devised  was  not  shown  previous  to  the  discussion  of  this 
subject  by  Demuth.  This  elimination  of  the  emerging  bees, 
to  be  successful  in  its  purpose,  must  occur  just  before  or 
during  the  swarming  season. 

The  various  manipulations  devised  by  beekeepers  which 
bring  about  this  condition  and  which  have  been  devised  to 
control  swarming  come  under  two  headings :  (1)  The  pre- 
vention or  great  restriction  of  egg-laying;  (2)  the  removal 
of  brood.  Even  if  there  were  one  best  manipulation,  a  bee- 
keeper would  probably  still  prefer  the  one  to  which  he  has 
become  accustomed,  but  there  is  so  far  no  one  method 
superior  to  all  the  others.  As  conditions  vary  from  season  to 
season,  or  even  within  the  season,  it  becomes  desirable  that 
the  beekeeper  change  his  manipulations  from  time  to  time. 

Restriction  of  egg-laying. 

The  most  radical  manipulation  under  this  heading  is  the 
removal  of  the  queen.  She  may  be  removed  for  a  period  of 
perhaps  ten  days  and  then  returned  (after  the  destruction 
of  all  queen  cells),  or  she  may  simply  be  caged  and  left  in  the 
colony,  to  be  released  at  the  end  of  the  period.  Another 
method  is  to  confine  the  queen  to  a  single  comb  of  brood 
and  several  empty  combs,  or  to  two  or  three  frames  filled 
with  foundation  in  a  hive-body  below  the  one  containing 
most  of  the  brood,  in  which  case  the  queen  cells  must  be 
destroyed  both  before  and  after  the  period  of  separation  of 
the  queen  and  brood. ^     In  any  event,  all  queen  cells  must 

1  The  removal  of  the  queen  has  been  recommended  by  Elwood,  Quinby, 
Hetherington  and  France.  Caging  the  queen  was  then  advised  by  Doo- 
little  and  tried  by  Miller.  The  next  step  was  to  utilize  the  queen  by  keep- 
ing her  in  a  nucleus  (Miller)  and  a  later  development  consisted  in  making 
the  nucleus  practically  a  part  of  the  main  colony.  This  was  done  by  put- 
ting a  comb  or  two  of  brood,  without  queen  cells,  in  the  lower  body  and  then 
placing  the  queen  and  most  of  the  brood  on  top  of  the  hive,  over  a  cover. 
Most  of  the  bees  are  left  with  the  queenless  portion  and  because  of  the 
reduced  population  in  the  upper  hive,  the  bees  destroy  the  queen  cells. 
In  about  ten  days  the  body  containing  the  queen  and  brood  is  put  below 
and  the  body  containing  the  few  combs  of  brood  is  removed  to  be  used  as 


282  Beekeeping 

be  removed  before  the  queen  is  returned  or  swarming  may 
occur.  These  methods  are  employed  only  on  colonies  that 
have  made  active  preparations  to  swarm  (having  advanced 
larvae  in  the  queen  cells)  and  they  are  successful  as  a  rule,  if 
the  swarming  period  is  not  prolonged  sufficiently  to  allow 
time  for  the  swarming  tendency  to  be  developed  anew.  The 
particular  time  for  making  colonies  queenless  must  be  deter- 
mined by  the  stage  in  the  development  of  the  queen  cells 
present  in  the  colony  preparing  to  swarm.  If  only  young 
larvae  are  found  in  the  queen  cells,  the  cells  may  simply  be 
cut  out  as  a  precautionary  measure  against  swarming,  but  if 
the  queen  cells  are  advanced,  their  removal  will  not  prevent 
swarming  and  the  colony  should  be  dequeened.  However, 
a  colony  with  the  queen  temporarily  removed  or  even  sepa- 
rated from  the  brood  is  often  not  in  the  best  condition  for 
storing,  especially  when  first  made  queenless,  and  these 
methods  have  sometimes  been  condemned  because  of  this 
fact.  Dequeening  is  to  be  preferred  in  obvious  cases  of 
supersedure  or  in  colonies  in  which  the  working  force  is  not 
large,  but  which  still  persist  in  preparing  to  swarm. 

Requeening  comhined  with  dequeening. 

Requeening  is  desirable  whenever  a  queen  is  unable  to 
keep  up  the  population  of  the  colony,  and  many  beekeepers 
find  it  advantageous  systematically  to  requeen  every  two 
years.  The  presence  of  a  young  queen  was  mentioned  earlier 
as  a  preventive  of  swarming,  but  this  is  not  a  guarantee  that 

needed  ("Put-up  Plan,"  C.  C.  Miller).  Another  modification  which 
followed  this  is  described  above,  in  which  the  queen  is  put  below  an  ex- 
cluder on  one  frame  of  brood  and  empty  combs.  Numerous  beekeepers 
have  advised  requeening  in  connection  with  the  dequeening,-  others  have 
modified  the  plan  by  making  the  lower  hive  into  a  nucleus  for  queen  rear- 
ing, while  in  one  case  it  is  recommended  that  a  nucleus  be  established  on 
the  side  of  the  hive  in  which  the  queen  is  mated,  so  arranged  that  by  pull- 
ing a  slide  of  perforated  zinc,  the  queen  is  introduced  to  the  colony  after 
mating.  These  various  systems  are  mentioned  here  mainly  to  show  their 
relation  to  the  fundamental  principle  of  restricting  egg-laying  and  also 
to  suggest  the  various  methods  so  that  the  beekeeper  may  choose  the  one 
best  suited  to  his  plans. 


Swarm  Control  and  Increase  283 

no  swarm  will  issue,  under  conditions  of  a  prolonged  honey- 
flow.  However,  requeening  combined  with  queenlessness 
for  about  ten  days,  after  swarming  preparations  have  begun, 
is  a  much  more  reliable  procedure.  The  method  used  in 
rearing  queens,  in  mating  them  and  in  introducing  them  to 
the  queenless  colonies  will  depend  on  the  equipment  and 
system  of  the  individual  beekeeper. 

Removal  of  brood. 

The  removal  of  a  frame  or  two  of  brood  was  mentioned 
earlier  as  a  swarm-preventive  measure  in  relieving  the  con- 
gestion in  the  brood-chamber,  especially  in  -comb-honey 
production.  It  obviously  also  has  the  effect  of  reducing  the 
number  of  emerging  bees  for  a  period.  If  a  colony  persists 
in  its  preparations  to  swarm,  a  common  remedial  measure  is 
to  carry  the  removal  of  brood  to  the  extreme  (artificial 
swarming).  In  brief,  the  beekeeper  does  for  the  colony  in 
advance  of  swarming  just  what  the  bees  would  do  for  them- 
selves if  left  to  their  own  instincts.  The  brood-combs  are 
removed  from  the  hive  and  the  bees  are  shaken  or  brushed 
from  the  combs  into  a  new  hive-body.  The  brood-combs 
are  then  comparable  to  the  parent  colony,  while  the  bees  in 
the  new  hive  make  up  the  artificial  swarm.  The  treatment 
of  the  various  parts  does  not  differ  from  the  same  procedure 
under  conditions  of  natural  swarming  and  need  not  be  re- 
peated. Since  artificial  swarms  desert  the  hive  sooner  than 
natural  swarms,  desertion  may  be  prevented  by  removing 
only  a  part  of  the  brood  at  one  time  and,  in  fact,  some  ma- 
nipulations do  not  call  for  the  removal  of  all  the  brood. 

This  manipulation  has  been  modified  in  a  dozen  ways  by 
various  beekeepers,  but  the  essential  pfinciple  remains  the 
same.  The  differences  in  the  directions  for  the  making  of 
artificial  swarms  are  chiefly  in  the  disposal  of  the  two  por- 
tions of  the  original  colony.  It  is  claimed  by  some  that,  to 
obtain  satisfactory  results,  the  bees  must  be  smoked  or  other- 
wise manipulated  until  they  fill  themselves  with  honey,  just 
as  bees  do  in  natural  swarming.     This  usually  occurs  during 


284  Beekeeping 

the  manipulations  without  any  thought  on  the  part  of  the 
beekeeper. 

Mechanical  appliances. 

Various  mechanical  contrivances  have  been  advocated  for 
separating  the  brood  and  the  adult  bees.  After  the  queen 
has  been  placed  in  a  new  hive,  the  bees  are  trapped  out  and 
induced  to  enter  the  new  hive  on  which  has  been  placed  the 
supers.  There  is  no  additional  principle  involved  in  these 
devices  and  they  are  serviceable  only  in  changing  the  work 
that  the  beekeeper  has  to  do.  They  often  do  not  reduce 
the  amount  of  time  and  labor  needed.  Among  these  devices 
may  be  mentioned  the  Hand  bottom  board  (provided  with 
levers  so  placed  as  to  force  the  returning  bees  into  the  de- 
sired hive)  and  Dudley  tubes  for  trapping  out  workers,  all 
of  which  have  been  described  in  bee-journals. 

INCEEASE 

It  is  assumed  in  the  previous  discussion  that  increase  is 
not  desired,  and  in  comb-honey  production  in  the  North, 
where  the  swarming  problem  is  most  acute,  increase  during 
the  honey-flow  is  usually  too  expensive  to  be  justifiable.  If 
the  apiary  has  been  reduced  by  winter  losses  or  in  some  other 
way,  or  if  an  apiary  is  being  built  up,  the  beekeeper  may 
prefer  to  sacrifice  honey  for  bees.  In  connection  with  the 
operation  of  the  various  plans  for  controlling  swarming,  there 
will  often  be  brood  that  can  be  used  for  increase.  Another 
method  is  simply  to  divide  colonies  into  two  or  more  equal 
parts,  preferably  providing  each  queenless  portion  with  a 
queen  cell,  or  better  still  with  a  queen,  as  soon  as  possible. 
To  obtain  increase  and  to  assist  in  swarm  control  without 
decreasing  the  crop  too  greatly,  combs  of  brood  with  some 
adhering  young  bees  may  be  removed  and  made  into  nuclei 
to  be  allowed  to  build  up  and  to  be  augmented  with  frames 
of  brood  from  other  sources  as  they  are  available. 

In  case  the  main  honey-flow  is  in  late  summer  {e.g.  buck- 


Swarm  Control  and  Increase  285 

wheat)  it  is  often  possible  to  make  increase  in  early  summer 
and  to  have  all  the  colonies  up  to  full  strength  by  the  time 
the  honey-flow  begins.  Increase  in  such  a  case  may  not 
result  in  any  decrease  in  the  crop  and,  in  fact,  it  often  brings 
an  increase  in  the  harvest. 

In  the  North,  in  regions  where  the  main  honey-flow  comes 
in  early  summer,  it  will  usually  be  found  more  profitable  to 
set  aside  certain  colonies  from  which  to  make  increase,  rather 
than  to  deplete  the  colonies  throughout  the  apiary  in  an 
attempt  to  make  increase  and  produce  a  crop  at  the  same 
time.  It  is  possible  to  make  increase  and  to  produce  the 
maximum  crop  of  honey  in  an  apiary  within  a  single  season, 
if  conditions  are  favorable,  but  not  to  do  these  things  simul- 
taneously. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE  PRODUCTION  OF  EXTRACT  ED-HONEY 

Before  the  invention  of  the  honey  extractor  in  1865, 
honey  was  removed  from  the  comb  either  by  crushing  it  and 
draining  off  the  honey  or  by  melting  it,  allowing  the  whole 
to  cool,  leaving  the  wax  on  top.  By  these  methods  strained 
honey  is  produced,  an  article  greatly  inferior  to  modern 
extracted-honey.  In  extracting  honey,  the  cappings  of  the 
honey  cells  of  the  comb  are  first  removed  with  a  hot  knife, 
the  comb  is  put  into  an  extractor  and  is  then  whirled,  the 
honey  being  removed  from  the  cells  by  centrifugal  force. 

Increase  in  the  production  of  extracted-honey. 

The  demand  for  extracted-honey  is  increasing,  and  it  is 
estimated  for  the  United  States  that,  whereas  34.9  per  cent 
of  the  honey  produced  in  1909  was  extracted,  in  1914  this  had 
increased  to  42.1  per  cent.  This  estimate  of  the  increase  is 
conservative,  and  among  professional  beekeepers  the  increase 
in  this  period  is  doubtless  greater.  This  is  partly  due  to  the 
demand  for  honey  from  bakers  and  confectioners,  but  a  po- 
tent influence  is  the  increased  confidence  of  the  consuming 
public  that  the  extracted-honey  on  the  market  is  not  adul- 
terated. For  this  confidence,  the  beekeeper  is  indebted  to 
the  enforcement  of  the  numerous  pure  food  laws.  Bee- 
keepers have  consistently  fought  adulteration  and  have 
welcomed  the  enforcement  of  these  laws  in  protecting  them 
from  the  competition  of  unscrupulous  jobbers  who  were 
formerly  guilty  of  adding  inferior  syrups  to  extracted-honey. 

286 


The  Production  of  Extracted-Honey  287 

Advantages  of  extracted-honey. 

The  fact  that  the  combs  may  be  repeatedly  used  increases 
materially  the  amount  of  honey  produced  by  a  single  colony 
and  thereby  reduces  the  cost  of  production  of  a  pound  of 
extracted-honey.  There  is  less  secretion  of  wax  and,  since  the 
secretion  of  a  pound  of  beeswax  is  estimated  as  costing  from 
six  to  twenty  pounds  of  honey  (and  probably  considerable 
bee  vitality),  this  saving  is  considerable.  In  light  honey- 
flows,  bees  often  refuse  to  work  in  comb-honey  sections, 
whereas  they  will  store  the  available  nectar  if  extracting 
combs  are  on  the  hive.  Under  comb-honey  conditions  the 
queen  is  often  cramped  for  room  and  the  population  of  the 
colony  is  thereby  reduced,  while  in  extracted-honey  con- 
ditions she  has  abundant  room,  unless  otherwise  restricted. 
The  larger  comb  area  in  extracted-honey  production  fur- 
nishes the  bees  plenty  of  cells  in  which  to  store  fresh  nectar, 
giving  increased  evaporating  surface  and  thus  hastening 
the  ripening  process.  The  beekeeper  can  care  for  more 
colonies  in  producing  extracted-honey  than  in  producing 
comb-honey.  Swarming  is  more  easily  controlled  and  is 
much  less  prevalent  because  of  the  abundance  of  empty 
comb  provided.  Furthermore,  in  comb-honey  production 
most  of  the  work  in  the  apiary  requires  skill  and  experience, 
while  in  extracted-honey  production  one  man  can  furnish 
the  skill  for  many  colonies  and  can  employ  unskilled  labor 
to  help  during  extracting.  In  selling  extracted-honey  to  the 
consumer  there  is  the  marked  advantage  of  blending  honeys 
from  different  sources,  thereby  obtaining  a  mixture  which 
can  be  duplicated  year  after  year. 

Disadvantages  of  extracted-honey. 

While  more  extracted-honey  than  comb-honey  can  be 
obtained  from  a  colony  in  a  season,  this  is  balanced  by  the 
fact  that  the  wholesale  market  value  of  a  pound  of  ex- 
tracted-honey is  less  than  that  of  a  section  of  comb-honey, 
the  unit  with  which  a  pound  of  extracted-honey  must  be 
compared.     However,  year  in  and  year  out  the  advantage 


288  Beekeeping 

is  probably  still  with  the  producer  of  extracted-honey,  so 
far  as  financial  return  is  concerned.  In  some  localities 
extracted-honey  does  not  sell  as  readily  as  comb-honey. 
In  extracting  honey  and  in  heating  it  later  to  bottle  it, 
some  of  the  dehcate  aroma  is  lost  but  this  usually  is  not 
sufficient  materially  to  reduce  the  value  of  the  honey  as  a 
dehcacy. 

Extracted-honey  hives. 

A  hive  at  least  as  large  as  the  10-frame  Langstroth  should 
be  used,  for  smaller  hives  do  not  provide  sufficient  room  for 
the  activities  of  a  colony  headed  by  a  vigorous  queen  and 
large  colonies  are  far  more  profitable  than  small  ones.  When 
a  honey-flow  begins,  the  hive  should  be  ready  with  an  extra 
hive-body  containing  frames  of  the  same  size  as  the  brood- 
chamber  already  on  top.  The  extra  hive-bodies  or  supers 
may  be  given  one  after  the  other  as  the  increase  in  surplus 
honey  indicates,  the  empty  super  being  usually  put  next 
to  the  hive  containing  the  brood.  If  the  beekeeper  believes 
the  local  conditions  warrant  it  he  may  give  several  hive- 
bodies  at  once.  It  is  quite  usual  to  space  the  frames  in  the 
supers  farther  apart  than  in  the  brood-chamber,  giving 
eight  frames  equally  spaced  in  a  10-frame  body.  This 
makes  less  combs  to  handle  for  a  given  amount  of  honey, 
and  if  the  comb  is  cut  deep  in  uncapping,  more  wax  is  ob- 
tained.    It  also  makes  uncapping  easier. 

Choice  of  storage  combs. 

White  honey  stored  in  cells  in  which  brood  has  been 
reared  is  sometimes  darkened  slightly  but  most  beekeepers 
find  it  too  much  work  to  keep  the  combs  for  breeding  en- 
tirely separate  from  the  storage  combs.  Colonies  are  also 
sometimes  stimulated  in  the  spring  by  putting  a  few  brood- 
combs  in  the  upper  story  to  get  the  bees  to  go  up  promptly. 
This  is  especially  valuable  in  swarm  prevention.  Usually 
the  queen  is  allowed  to  go  where  she  will  in  the  hive  to  de- 
posit eggs. 


The  Production  of  Extracted-Honey  289 

Use  of  extracting  combs  smaller  than  brood-combs. 

An  exception  to  the  above  statements  concerning  the 
size  of  the  hive  and  supers  is  to  be  found  when  unusually 
deep  brood-frames  are  used,  when  frames  of  Langstroth 
depth  are  often  used  for  extracting  combs.  Some  beekeepers 
also  prefer  to  use  shallow  extracting  frames,  the  length  of 
the  Langstroth  frames  but  5|  inches  deep,  to  obviate  the 
lifting  of  such  heavy  supers  as  those  of  full  Langstroth  size. 
The  latter  frames  are  advantageous  for  bulk  comb-honey 
production  (p.  318). 

Number  of  supers. 

The  character  of  the  honey-flow  will  determine  largely  the 
number  of  surplus  bodies  used  and  the  method  of  taking  off 
the  honey.  In  a  slow  honey-flow  one  surplus  body  is  often 
sufficient  and  as  individual  combs  are  filled  and  sealed  they 
are  removed  and  the  honey  extracted.  In  a  heavy  honey-flow 
more  bodies  should  be  given  at  one  time  so  that  there  will  be 
room  for  ripening  and  storing  the  honey.  In  the  latter  case, 
whole  hive-bodies  are  frequently  taken  away  at  one  time. 

Manipulation  of  the  supers. 

To  confine  the  queen  to  the  lower  hive-body  and  prevent 
brood  from  being  scattered  throughout  the  hive,  one  of 
two  methods  may  be  employed.  If  a  queen  excluder  (Fig. 
115)  is  used  the  queen  is  kept  below,  but  many  honey  pro- 
ducers object  to  these  on  the  ground  of  expense  and  be- 
cause they  believe  the  workers  are  somewhat  retarded  by 
them.  If  the  new  supers  are  always  placed  directly  above 
the  brood-chamber  and  under  the  supers  already  on,  there 
is  little  likefihood  of  the  queen  going  above.  Under  these 
circumstances  the  order  of  the  supers  is  practically  the 
same  as  in  comb-honey  production  (p.  314).  Bees  prob- 
ably begin  work  in  new  combs  more  quickly  if  they  are 
placed  near  the  brood-chamber.  In  rapid  honey-flows, 
however,  bees  go  readily  to  the  very  top  of  the  hive  for 
empty  cells  without  hesitation. 


290  Beekeeping 

Need  of  abundance  of  drawn  combs. 

In  any  event,  plenty  of  drawn  combs  should  be  available 
and  they  should  be  given  to  the  colonies  soon  enough  so 
that  there  will  always  be  some  empty  comb  in  the  hive. 
If  the  bees  become  crowded,  the  queen  may  be  restricted 
in  egg-laying  and  there  is  not  room  to  spread  out  the  nectar 
for  economical  ripening.  The  crowded  conditions  so  com- 
monly found  in  comb-honey  production  should  be  avoided 
in  the  production  of  extracted-honey.  The  advantage  of 
fully  drawn  combs  is  especially  evident  in  poor  seasons, 
for  then  the  bees  may  refuse  to  build  combs  but  will  store 
all  the  honey  available  if  drawn  combs  are  provided. 

The  giving  of  frames  entirely  or  partially  filled  with 
foundation  from  which  combs  must  be  built,  diverts  a  part 
of  the  colony  to  wax  building  and  probably  reduces  the 
field  force,  although  wax  is  secreted  chiefly  by  young  bees 
not  yet  ready  for  work  in  the  field.  Part  of  the  honey  is 
consumed  in  wax  building.  There  may  be  some  delay  in 
starting  work  on  the  new  combs,  which  in  a  heavy  honey- 
flow  results  either  in  a  loss  of  honey  or  in  the  cramping  of 
the  queen.  The  extracted-honey  producer  should  supply 
himself  with  drawn  combs  in  abundance  as  soon  as  possible. 
These  may  be  obtained  economically  by  hiving  swarms  on  full 
sheets  of  comb-foundation.  Another  good  method  is  to  put 
eight  frames  in  a  10-frame  hive  as  an  upper  story,  four  on 
one  side  being  full  combs  and  the  other  four  being  frames 
containing  comb-foundation.  This  is  better  than  to  alternate 
comb  and  foundation,  in  which  case  the  combs  are  usually 
drawn  out  abnormally  thick  and  the  comb-foundation  is 
drawn  out  slightly.  Better  combs  are  built  during  a  good 
honey-flow  for  the  corners  are  then  filled  more  completely  than 
in  a  small  honey-flow.  If  desired  the  nectar  obtained  at  the 
end  of  the  main  honey-flow  may  be  utiUzed  in  comb  building. 

System  in  producing  extracted-honey. 

The  extensive  producer  of  extracted-honey  may  systema- 
tize his  work  so  that  it  is  necessary  to  visit  each  out-apiary 


The  Production  of  Extracted-Honey  291 

only  a  few  times  a  year.  The  number  and  time  of  these 
visits  must  be  determined  by  the  character  of  the  honey- 
flows.  Usually  the  honey  from  each  floral  source  should 
be  extracted  separately  and  this  necessitates  a  trip  after 
each  honey-flow.  The  apiaries  should  be  of  such  size  that 
either  in  one  day  or  two  all  the  extracting  can  be  done,  and 
to  help  with  this  work  unskilled  labor  may  usually  be  em- 
ployed. Since  the  giving  of  plenty  of  drawn  combs  re- 
duces swarming,  it  is  usually  not  profitable  to  keep  a  helper 
at  each  apiary  during  the  swarming  season,  for  the  few 
swarms  that  would  be  saved  are  worth  less  than  the  helper 
would  cost.  If  the  apiary  can  be  located  near  the  home 
of  some  interested  person  the  swarms  may  be  caught,  but 
frequently  it  is  desirable  to  put  out-apiaries  in  rather  deso- 
late places,  some  distance  from  a  dwelling.  E.  D.  Town- 
send  of  Northstar,  Michigan,  manages  a  number  of  out- 
apiaries  in  northern  Michigan  on  four  trips  a  year.  On 
the  first  trip  (June)  he  gives  each  strong  colony  two  10- 
frame  supers,  each  containing  eight  frames.  On  the  second 
trip  (July)  and  the  third  (after  the  honey-flows)  he  extracts, 
two  trips  being  made  to  keep  the  clover  and  basswood  honeys 
separate.  In  October  he  sees  that  the  colonies  are  ready 
for  winter,  after  which  they  are  not  again  visited  until  June. 

Removing  honey  from  the  hees. 

Honey  should  not  be  removed  from  the  hive  for  extracting 
until  well  ripened.  When  at  least  two-thirds  of  the  surface 
of  the  comb  is  capped  over  the  honey  will  be  sufficiently 
thick,  but  the  humidity  should  be  considered  in  laying  down 
a  rule  for  this.  In  dry  climates,  such  as  the  semi-arid 
regions  of  the  West,  the  evaporation  of  the  water  in  the 
nectar  takes  place  rapidly  and  it  is  not  necessary  to  wait 
until  so  much  of  the  honey  is  capped.  Conversely  in  regions 
of  high  humidity  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  get  honey  well 
ripened. 

When  the  time  comes  to  extract,  the  usual  practice  is 
to  remove  the  frames  one  by  one,  returning  those  not  readyj 


292  Beekeeping 

and  to  brush  or  shake  off  the  adhering  bees.  Bee-escapes 
(Fig.  31)  may  be  used  in  removing  bees  from  extracting 
supers  but  this  is  not  usually  practiced  by  extensive  pro- 
ducers as  it  necessitates  going  to  the  apiary  a  day  ahead 
and  it  is  desirable  to  reduce  the  trips  wherever  possible. 
For  the  beekeeper  with  one  apiary,  these  may  often  be 
used  to  advantage.  A  bee  brush  (Fig.  28)  may  be  used 
for  brushing  off  the  bees  or  a  bunch  of  grass  or  weeds  will 
answer  admirably.  The  combs  practically  free  of  bees  are 
then  taken  to  the  house  for  extracting.  For  carrying  these 
an  ordinary  hive-body  with  a  cover  answers  very  well  and 
special  handles  may  be  put  on  it  to  facihtate  carrying,  or 
several  bodies  may  be  placed  on  a  wheelbarrow  or  two- 
wheeled  cart.  Some  beekeepers  have  arranged  rails  through 
the  apiary  on  which  trucks  may  be  run  for  carrying  full 
bodies  in  and  for  returning  the  empty  combs.  This  is 
practical  for  fixed  apiary  locations  but  often  the  professional 
beekeeper  wants  to  have  no  apparatus  that  cannot  be  moved 
if  desired. 

The  greatest  care  should  be  exercised  while  honey  is 
being  taken  from  the  hives  that  the  bees  do  not  begin  rob- 
bing. This  is  especially  necessary  if  extracting  is  done 
after  the  honey-flow  has  ceased.  Should  robbing  begin, 
it  is  often  best  to  stop  work  for  the  day,  as  robbing  is  not 
only  most  annoying  to  the  beekeeper  but  detrimental  to 
the  bees.  The  feeding  of  a  thin  syrup  out  of  doors  is  some- 
times practiced  to  prevent  robbing  during  extracting. 

House  for  extracting. 

The  house  where  the  extracting  is  done  need  not  differ 
materially  from  the  honey-house  described  previously  (p. 
23).  If  the  apiary  is  on  sloping  ground,  it  is  preferable 
to  have  the  colonies  above  the  house,  so  that  the  heavy 
full  hives  are  carried  down  hill  and  the  empty  hives  up. 
To  reduce  labor,  it  is  desirable  that  there  be  an  opening 
for  admitting  the  honey  to  the  house  convenient  to  the 
uncapping  outfit  and  that  the  extractor  be  near  at  hand. 


The  Production  of  Extracted-Honey  293 

These  should  be  on  a  high  level  in  the  house,  if  practicable, 
so  that  from  the  time  the  honey  runs  from  the  extractor, 
its  course  is  down  hill  to  the  final  container.  It  is  worth 
the  effort  to  pay  considerable  attention  to  this  feature,  for 
if  the  honey  must  be  lifted  at  any  part  of  its  journey  a  great 
amount  of  labor  is  involved  in  large  apiaries  where  tons 
of  honey  are  extracted  in  a  season.  If  such  an  arrangement 
is  not  feasible,  a  honey-pump  (Fig.  122)  may  be  used,  as  is 
described  later. 

Portable  extracting  outfits. 

In  sections  where  at  times  it  is  desirable  to  move  apiaries 
or  where  several  out-apiaries  are  under  one  management, 
it  is  occasionally  advantageous  to  have  a  portable  extracting 
outfit  which  is  virtually  an  extracting  house  on  wheels. 
A  well-screened  wagon  is  fitted  with  uncapping  cans,  ex- 
tractors (with  power  if  desired)  and  all  the  necessary  equip- 
ment. As  the  honey  is  extracted,  it  can  be  run  into  a  tank 
under  the  wagon  bed  or  into  barrels  or  cans.  If  desired  a 
tank  wagon  to  carry  the  honey  may  accompany  the  outfit. 
Some  beekeepers  have  found  portable  buildings  (built  in 
sections)  preferable,  in  which  case  one  is  put  in  each  apiary. 
If  these  are  used,  it  is  better  to  have  a  full  extracting  outfit 
at  each  apiary. 

Uncapping. 

When  the  full  combs  of  honey  reach  the  extracting  house, 
the  first  manipulation  is  uncapping.  This  is  done  with  a 
specially  constructed  knife, 
of  which  there  are  several 
types  (Fig.  116).  Of  these 
the  Bingham  knife  with 
heavy  wide  blade  is  best. 
The  knife  should  be  kept  ^-  ''^-^'^^^^.  "^'^'' 
sharp,  clean  and  hot,  and 

when  the  usual  knives  are  used,  each  operator  is  pro- 
vided with  two  so  that  one  may  be  kept  in  hot  water,  to 


294 


Beekeeping 


Fig.  1 17.  —  Steam- heated  uncapping  knife. 


clean  and  heat  it,  while  the  other  is  in  use.  Recently  a 
steam-heated  knife  (Fig.  117)  has  been  put  on  the  market 
which  is  highly  recommended  by  those  who  have  tried  it. 

Steam  is  generated  in 
a  small  boiler  (such 
as  a  one-gallon  honey 
can),  passes  through 
a  hose  into  a  hollow 
space  in  the  knife 
blade,  escaping  through  a  small  hole  in  tlie  tip.  Some 
European  beekeepers  use  an  instrument  Hke  a<;omb  (Fig.  118) 
for  uncapping,  but  this  is  too  slow  for  American  beekeepers. 
In  uncapping,  the  lower  end  of  the  comb  is  placed  on  some 
support  and  the  comb  is  sUghtly  tipped  so  that  as  the  cap- 
pings  are  cut  off  they  fall  away  from  the  surface  of  the 
comb  (Fig.  119).  If  the 
knife  is  first  inserted  at 
the  lower  end  of  the  comb 
and  brought  upward  with 
a  sawing  motion,  the  cap- 
pings  fall  away  easily  and 
cause  no  inconvenience  or  smearing.  Some  beekeepers  pre- 
fer to  begin  cutting  at  the  upper  end,  thereby  utilizing  the 
weight  of  the  knife  in  cutting  the  comb.  The  upward  cut 
is  practiced  by  most  extensive  beekeepers. 

Cans  for  cappings. 

The  uncapping  should  be  done  over  some  sort  of  receptacle 
into  which  the  cappings  will  fall.  Hutchinson  used  a  simple, 
cheap  and  satisfactory  outfit,  consisting  of  a  barrel  hung 
with  bent  wires  on  the  edges  of  a  galvanized  iron  tub.  Across 
the  top  of  the  barrel  is  nailed  a  board  through  which  is 
driven  a  nail  with  the  point  upward.  One  of  the  end  bars 
of  the  frame  is  placed  on  this  nail  point  and  after  one  side 
is  uncapped,  the  frame  is  turned  on  the  nail.  Some  bee- 
keepers prefer  to  bore  a  one-inch  hole  in  the  cross  piece 
into  which  the  projection  on  the  bar  of  the  frame  is  inserted. 


Fig.  118. 


Comb  for  uncapping,  used 
in  Europe. 


The  Production  of  Extracted-Honey 


295 


Another  cross  piece  on 
which  to  scrape  wax  and 
honey  from  the  knife  is  an 
advantage.  The  cappings 
drop  into  the  barrel  and 
the  honey  drains  into  the 
tub  below  through  cracks 
ip  the  barrel.  The  advan- 
tage of  this  cheap  mechan- 
ism is  that  when  one  barrel 
is  well  filled  with  cappings, 
the  outfit  may  be  set  aside 
to  drain  and  another  one 
substituted.  More  elabo- 
rate tanks  (Fig.  120)  have 
been  devised  for  this  pur- 
pose which  have  the  ad- 
vantage of  durability  and 
permanence.  These  tanks 
may  be  made  either  of 
sheet  metal  or  of  wood  lined  with  tin.  A  screen  is  ar- 
ranged in  the  box  on  which  the  cappings  fall  and  the  honey 

drains  into  the  lower 


Capping  melters. 

A  later  develop- 
ment in  uncapping 
cans  is  a  piece  of  ap- 
paratus in  which  the 
cappings  are  melted 
at  once  and  the  honey 
and  melted  wax  run 
out.  Honey  is  then 
quickly  drawn  off 
from  the  bottom  of 
the  receptacle  leaving 


Fig.  119.  —  Capping  melter.  This  also 
shows  the  proper  method  of  remov- 
ing cappings. 


Fig.  120.  —  Tank  to  receive  cappings. 


296 


Beekeeping 


the  wax  to  cool  on  top  of  a  little  of  the  honey.  A  small  cap- 
ping melter  (Fig.  119)  is  now  marketed,  but  for  extensive 
operations  it  is  preferable  to  make  a  larger  tank  (Fig.  122) 
on  this  principle.  In  these  melters  the  honey  and  wax 
come  in  contact  only  with  the  inner  wall  of  a  water  jacket 
and  do  not  touch  metal  which  is  in  direct  contact  with  the 
flame.  The  objection  has  been  raised  that  the  heating  of 
the  honey  in  this  way  discolors  it,  but  if  it  runs  off  and  is 
separated  from  the  melted  wax 
quickly  this  is  reduced  to  a  mini- 
mum. Apparatus  of  this  type  has 
been  adopted  by  numerous  exten- 
sive producers.  The  relief  from  the 
care  of  a  great  mass  of  cappings  at 
the  end  of  extracting  certainly  ap- 
peals to  the  extensive  beekeeper. 

Types  of  extractors. 

After  the  comb  is  uncapped  on 
both  sides  it  is  ready  for  the  ex- 
tractor. The  development  of  the 
extractor  from  the  first  simple 
clumsy  machines  is  of  interest  and 
illustrates  nicely  the  progress  of 
beekeeping  in  recent  years.  Following  the  announcement 
of  the  invention  ^  of  the  extractor  in  Italy,  the  first  type 
marketed  in  the  United  States  consisted  of  a  revolving 
can  into  which  frames  were  placed  in  pockets  and  the  can 
was  revolved  by  means  of  a  handle  directly  attached. 
The  next  step,  and  a  most  important  one,  was  to  make 
the  can  stationary  (Fig.  121),  the  frames  being  placed  in 
baskets  attached  to  a  central  axis  which  is  driven  with  a 
gear.     The  ''Novice"  extractors  (1869)  are  of   this   type. 


Fig.    121.  —  Extractor  with 
stationary  can. 


^  The  removal  of  honey  by  centrifugal  force  was  discovered  accidentally, 
de  Hruschka  gave  his  son  a  comb  on  a  plate.  He  put  this  in  a  basket  and, 
boy-like,  swung  the  basket  around  him.  de  Hruschka  noticed  that  some 
honey  was  di;ained  out  and  thereby  got  the  basic  idea  for  the  extractor. 


The  Production  of  Extraded-Honey  297 

the  baskets  being  close  to  the  axis  giving  the  greatest  prac- 
tical centrifugal  force  for  a  given  velocity  of  the  comb. 
These  are  made  for  two  and  four  frames  and  are  still  used. 
The  next  advance  was  in  making  the  reversible  extractor,  in 
which  the  baskets  are  hung  by  one  edge  on  pivots,  so  that 
when  the  honey  is  removed  from  one  side,  the  basket  can 
be  turned  and  the  other  side  extracted  without  removing 
the  combs  from  the  baskets.  From  this  it  was  a  short 
step  to  the  automatic  reversible  machine  in  which  it  is  not 
necessary  to  bring  the  reels  to  a  full  stop  to  reverse  the 
baskets.  When  first  inserted,  the  baskets  are  placed  so 
that  in  their  revolutions  they  are  pulled  by  their  hinges. 
After  one  side  is  empty,  the  speed  is  checked  by  means  of 
a  brake  on  the  central  axis  and  the  momentum  of  the  baskets 
throws  them  around  on  the  hinges  exposing  the  other  side 
of  the  comb.  Soon  after  this  improvement  was  made,  the 
driving  rod  was  provided  with  a  slip-gear  so  that,  after 
the  reels  are  well  under  way,  the  gear  is  thrown  out  and 
the  reels  revolve  while  the  driving  gear  stands  still.  From 
this  point  progress  has  been  chiefly  in  the  application  of 
power  to  the  extractor  and  in  increase  in  size.  We  now 
have  extractors  driven  by  gasoline  or  electric  motors  having 
a  capacity  of  four,  six,  eight  (Fig.  122)  and  even  twelve 
frames.  These  large  outfits  are  capable  of  handling  tons 
of  honey  in  a  season.  The  latest  improvement  is  the  ap- 
plication of  the  friction  drive  in  place  of  gears,  by  which 
any  speed  may  be  obtained  by  changing  the  position  of  one 
of  the  friction  members,  but  the  special  advantages  are 
smoothness  in  starting  and  reduction  of  noise.  Extractors 
of  all  the  types  mentioned  except  the  early  revolving  can 
extractors  are  still  manufactured  and  each  type  is  suited 
to  certain  apiary  conditions.  Obviously  only  professional 
beekeepers  need  a  large  power  outfit,  but  there  are  a  great 
many  of  these,  as  evidenced  by  the  unexpected  number 
of  sales  of  such  equipment.  It  is  claimed  that  the  power 
driven  extractors  clean  the  combs  more  thoroughly  than 
do  hand  driven  machines. 


298 


Beekeeping 


Extracting. 

In  extracting,  care  must  be  exercised  not  to  run  the  ex- 
tractor too  rapidly  as  this  may  break  or  crush  combs,  es- 
pecially new  or  unwired  ones.  It  is  a  good  practice  to 
extract  some  honey  from  one  side,  to  reverse  and  extract 
the  other  side  clean  and  then  go  back  to  complete  the  ex- 
tracting on  the  first  side.  With  fragile  combs,  the  honey 
on  the  inner  side  may  be  forced  against  the  midrib  of  the 
comb  so  strongly  as  to  crush  it  if  the  comb  is  revolved  too 


Borro/Morsnu/MtJr 


Fig.   123.  —  Honey  strainer. 


rapidly  in  extracting  the  first  side.  In  placing  combs  in  the 
extractor,  those  of  about  the  same  weight  should  be  placed 
opposite  each  other  to  prevent  swinging  of  the  extractor, 
thus  making  it  easier  for  the  operator  and  less  wearing  on 
the  machine.  The  honey  is  thrown  against  the  side  of  the 
extractor  can  and  runs  down  and  out  an  opening  provided 
at  the  bottom,  usually  equipped  with  a  honey  gate  (as  in 
Fig.  121)  so  that  it  may  be  quickly  and  securely  closed. 

Straining  the  honey. 

Since  particles  of  cappings  naturally  adhere  to  the  comb 
and  since  other  foreign  matter  may  get  into  the  honey, 
including  an  occasional  bee,  the  honey  should  be  strained 


The  Production  of  Extraded-Honey 


299 


as  it  leaves  the  extractor.  For  small  operations,  it  may 
simply  be  run  through  a  cheese-cloth  bag,  greater  surface 
being  given  by  supporting  the  cheese-cloth  on  wire  netting 
(Fig.  123).  Another  type  is  known  as  the  gravity  strainer. 
In  this,  the  honey  runs  into  a  tank  with  a  partition  having 
an  opening  at  the  bottom  through  which  the  honey  can  pass 
to  another  compartment.  No  honey  flows  from  the  outlet 
until  it  fills  the  strainer  to  the  level  of  the  upper  outlet  and 
most  of  the  larger  foreign  particles  rise  to  the  top  in  the 
first  chamber  allowing  the  honey  to  pass  off  relatively  free 
from  foreign  material.  Gravity  strainers  are  widely  used 
and  can  readily  be  made  to  any  desired  capacity.  They 
are  usually  combined  with 
a  strainer  of  cheese-cloth 
(Fig.  122)  to  get  out  more 
of  the  impurities. 

Storage  tanks. 

From  a  strainer  of  any 
type  it  is  advantageous 
to  run  honey  into  a  tank 
so  that  particles  that  pass 
the  strainer  will  have  an 
opportunity  to  rise  to  the 
top,  the  honey  always  be- 
ing drawn  from  the  bot- 
tom. Many  beekeepers, 
however,  run  honey  di- 
rectly from  the  strainer 

.    ,  i_  1         rni-  Fig.  124.  —  Honey  storage  tanks. 

mto  cans  or  barrels.     The 

extra  settling  in  the  tank  not  only  removes  more  small 
particles  of  wax,  but  allows  air  bubbles  to  escape  and  also 
allows  any  surplus  water  to  evaporate  in  dry  weather. 
Large  tanks  of  a  capacity  of  several  tons  are  often  used  by 
California  beekeepers  (Fig.  124).  If  the  tank  is  outside 
the  extracting  house,  it  should  be  covered  tightly  to  keep 
out  robber  bees  as  well  as  dirt.    Outdoor  tanks  are  not 


300  Beekeeping 

practical  except  in  the  dry  regions  of  the  West  where  it 
does  not  rain  during  the  honey  season.  To  aid  in  keeping 
out  bees  and  dirt,  the  western  honey  tanks  have  a  relatively 
small  opening  at  the  top. 

Reduction  of  the  lifting  of  honey. 

If  the  extracting  house  can  be  so  arranged  that  the  honey 
will  flow  from  one  piece  of  equipment  to  the  other,  much 
lifting  is  avoided.  Honey  is  usually  run  into  tanks  through 
pipes  and  if  desired  these  may  be  utilized  in  carrying  the 
honey  from  one  house  to  another  or  to  tanks  some  distance 
from  the  extracting  house.  Care  should  be  taken  to  keep 
these  pipes  clean.  If  the  honey  cannot  be  run  by  gravity 
through  its  entire  course,  a  honey-pump  (Fig.  122)  may  be 
used  and  the  usual  practice  is  to  attach  this  to  the  extractor 
so  that  it  may  be  driven  by  the  same  power  that  runs  the 
extractor.  The  whipping  of  honey  in  a  pump  tends  to  in- 
duce granulation  so  that  honey  should  not  be  pumped  after 
being  heated  for  bottling  (p.  324). 

Returning  combs  to  the  hives. 

After  the  combs  are  emptied,  they  may  either  be  returned 
to  the  bees  to  be  refilled,  if  nectar  is  still  coming  in,  or  may 
be  returned  to  be  cleaned  of  honey  and  then  removed  for 
storage.  If  the  honey-flow  is  still  on,  empty  combs  may 
be  put  on  a  hive  as  the  full  ones  are  removed,  but  during  a 
light  flow  of  honey  or  a  dearth  of  nectar  this  may  cause 
robbing  and  undue  excitement  in  the  apiary.  In  this  event, 
the  combs  should  be  kept  in  the  extracting  house  until  the 
end  of  the  day.  If  the  combs  are  returned  simply  to  be 
cleaned,  a  half  dozen  hive-bodies  may  be  put  over  one  colony 
and  the  bees  will  soon  clean  all  of  them.  After  the  surplus 
combs  are  emptied,  they  may  be  left  on  the  colonies  to  pre- 
vent their  destruction  by  wax-moth  larvae  or  they  may  be 
stored  in  a  light,  well- ventilated  room  or  in  hive-bodies  where 
they  should  be  watched  and  fumigated  when  necessary. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE  PRODUCTION  OF  COMB-HONEY 

Comb-honey  is  honey  as  stored  in  the  comb  by  the  bees, 
the  size  and  shape  of  the  comb  being  determined  by  the 
small  wooden  box  (section)  provided  by  the  beekeeper 
and  the  comb  being  sold  with  the  section  still  surrounding 
it.  The  development  of  this  style  of  package  is  readily 
traced  back  to  a  period  previous  to  the  invention  of  the 
modern  hive.  Formerly  boxes  were  put  on  top  of  the  box- 
hive  or  skep  in  which  the  bees  built  comb  and  stored  honey. 
The  next  step  was  to  make  these  boxes  of  a  number  of  units 
comparable  to  the  modern  section  and  to  compel  the  bees 
to  build  one  comb  in  each  unit.  From  this  it  was  a  short 
step  to  separate  sections  with  partitions  (separators)  between. 

Purity  of  comb-honey. 

The  purchaser  of  a  section  of  comb-honey  may  feel  sure 
that  he  is  bu3dng  a  pure  product  of  the  bees,  since  comb- 
honey  cannot  be  adulterated  with  profit.  It  is  impossible 
to  make  an  artificial  comb,  fill  it  with  syrup  and  cap  it 
over  so  that  it  even  roughly  resembles  the  work  of  the  bees. 
By  the  use  of  modern  apiary  appliances,  comb-honey  is 
produced  that  is  so  attractive  and  uniform  in  appearance 
that  the  claim  is  often  made  that  it  is  manufactured.  An 
examination  will,  however,  show  that  no  two  sections  are 

Note.  In  the  preparation  of  this  chapter,  the  author  is  indebted 
to  his  colleague,  Geo.  S.  Demuth,  for  invaluable  assistance.  Mr. 
Demuth's  bulletin  "Comb  Honey"  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agric,  Farmers' 
Bulletin  503)  should  be  read  and  studied  by  every  producer  of 
comb-honey. 

301 


302  Beekeeping 

identical  as  they  would  be  if  machine  made.  To  show  its 
confidence  in  the  purity  of  comb-honey,  the  National  Bee 
Keepers'  Association  in  1904  offered  $1000  for  a  single  sec- 
tion of  manufactured  comb-honey  which  would  even  ap- 
proximately resemble  the  work  of  bees  and  a  similar  offer 
was  made  considerably  earlier  by  A.  I.  Root,  Medina, 
Ohio.  Needless  to  say,  no  person  has  been  able  to  claim 
these  prizes. 

The ''Wiley  lie r 

This  calls  to  mind  an  episode  which  at  the  time  caused 
beekeepers  of  this  country  much  anxiety.  H.  W.  Wiley 
stated  in  "  Popular  Science  Monthly  "  in  1881,  in  an  article  on 
prevalent  practices  in  food  adulteration,  that  artificial 
combs  of  paraffin  were  being  filled  with  glucose,  capped 
to  imitate  the  work  of  bees,  and  sold  as  comb-honey.  In 
this  statement  he  was  entirely  wrong  and  he  publicly  ad- 
mitted the  error  later,  there  being,  however,  some  basis  for 
his  misunderstanding  since  he  had  been  informed  of  efforts 
along  this  line  by  a  New  England  inventor.  "Popular  Science 
Monthly  "  did  not  have  a  circulation  large  enough  to  cause 
much  trouble  from  such  an  erroneous  statement,  but  un- 
fortunately it  was  called  to  the  attention  of  some  prominent 
beekeepers.  They  dubbed  it  the  ''Wiley  lie"  and  con- 
tinued to  magnify  the  harm  that  would  come  from  it  and 
to  re-publish  the  error  with  denials  until  the  story  was 
spread  throughout  the  country.  The  last  chapter  in  this 
incident  was  the  anonymous  re-publication' of  the  original 
statement  and  a  collection  of  denials  in  an  effort  to  hinder 
the  passage  in  Congress  of  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act  of  June  30, 
1906,  now  so  familiar  to  all  consumers  of  food.  It  should  be 
made  clear  that  this  effort  was  not  perpetrated  by  any  or- 
ganization of  beekeepers,  although  an  attempt  was  made 
to  make  it  so  appear.  The  only  fault  that  can  be  found 
with  the  beekeepers  is  that  they  did  not  refrain  from  dis- 
cussing the  matter  and  they  thereby  probably  did  the  in- 
dustry far  more  damage  than  did  the  original  statement, 


The  Production  of  Comb-Honey  303 

for  it  appeared  that  they  might  be  covering  their  own  mis- 
deeds. Occasionally  some  ignorant  or  sensational  writer 
even  now  succeeds  in  repeating  this  error  in  print,  but  bee- 
keepers promptly  demand  and  usually  receive  a  public 
correction.  There  is  not  the  slightest  basis  for  the  mis- 
representation. 

Decrease  in  comb-honey  production. 

With  the  invention  of  the  honey  extractor,  some  enthu- 
siasts predicted  that  soon  no  comb-honey  would  be  produced, 
but  this  prophecy  has  not  been  fulfilled.  Comb-honey  has 
a  place  in  the  American  honey  trade  which  cannot  be  filled 
by  extracted-honey.  However,  a  gradual  change  is  taking 
place  and  the  percentage  of  the  total  honey  crop  that  is 
produced  in  sections  is  decreasing  annually.  Professional 
beekeepers  have  found  that  they  can  care  for  more  colonies 
when  producing  extracted-honey,  thereby  increasing  their 
profits.  The  spread  of  the  brood  diseases  is  rapidly  eliminat- 
ing the  beekeepers  with  small  apiaries  for  whom  comb- 
honey  is  more  convenient  and,  while  the  number  of  colonies 
in  the  United  States  is  increasing,  the  sale  of  sections  is 
steadily  decreasing.  There  are  other  reasons  for  this  change 
which  appear  later  under  the  enumeration  of  the  disadvan- 
tages in  comb-honey  production. 

Demand  for  fancy  comb-honey. 

The  American  markets  are  now  demanding  only  fancy 
comb-honey  and  the  inferior  grades  and  darker  comb- 
honeys  find  a  poor  sale.  To  be  successful  in  competition 
with  extracted-honey,  comb-honey  must  be  a  fancy  article, 
appealing  to  the  fancy  trade.  For  this  reason,  which  is 
becoming  more  evident  every  season,  there  are  still  many 
beekeepers  who  produce  comb-honey  who  should  change 
to  extracted-honey,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  this  transi- 
tion will  continue  until  all  the  grades  of  comb-honey  which 
now  injure  the  market  are  eliminated.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  will  be  increased  profits  for  the  best  grades  of  comb- 


304  Beekeeping 

honey,  and  the  beekeepers  in  favorable  localities  may  find 
it  profitable  to  increase  their  production  of  honey  in  sections. 

Advantages  of  comb-honey. 

The  advantages  in  the  production  of  comb-honey  are 
numerous.  As  stated  in  the  previous  chapter,  some  of  the 
delicate  aroma  of  the  finest  grades  of  honey  is  lost  in  ex- 
tracting, but  this  is  retained  to  the  full  in  comb-honey.  In 
the  production  of  comb-honey  by  the  small  beekeeper,  less 
expensive  equipment  is  necessary.  The  handling  of  the 
honey  is  a  clean  job  and  there  is  an  attractiveness  about 
the  product  that  makes  the  handling  of  it  a  pleasure.  The 
wholesale  price  of  comb-honey  is  higher  than  that  of  ex- 
tracted-honey,  but  the  amount  obtained  from  each  colony 
is  usually  less,  so  that  the  return  is  about  the  same  in  either 
case.  In  a  good  honey-flow  the  advantage  is  with  the 
comb-honey  producer  who  uses  proper  methods  of  manipu- 
lation, while  in  Ught  honey-flows  only  the  producer  of  ex- 
tracted-honey  gets  all  the  crop.  The  section  is  a  convenient 
package  for  retail  trade.  In  this  connection  it  should  be 
noted  that  in  comb-honey  production  the  beekeeper  pre- 
pares the  honey  for  the  consumer  while  extracted-honey 
is  more  often  sold  in  wholesale  packages.  When  extracted- 
honey  is  blended  and  bottled  it  usually  brings  as  high  a 
retail  price  as  comb-honey,  but  in  this  case  the  beekeeper 
does  not  do  all  the  work  and  the  bottler  gets  a  good  share 
of  the  profits.  Comb-honey  meets  with  more  ready  sale 
in  most  markets  than  does  extracted-honey. 

Disadvantages  of  comb-honey. 

Comb-honey  ships  poorly  and  consequently  there  is  often 
considerable  loss  from  breakage,  on  which  account  some 
wholesale  honey  dealers  refuse  to  handle  it.  In  colonies 
run  for  comb-honey,  swarming  is  a  much  more  serious 
problem  than  in  the  larger  hives  with  plenty  of  empty  comb 
space  used  for  extracted-honey.     In  fight  honey-flows,  bees 


The  Production  of  Comb-Honey  305 

work  little  or  not  at  all  in  sections,  for  bees  are  induced 
to  build  comb  and  store  honey  in  small  sections  with  diffi- 
culty and  there  is  often  a  loss  before  they  begin  work  properly. 
A  serious  drawback  is  that  if  honey  in  the  comb  granulates  it 
is  almost  a  total  loss,  and  usually  the  only  way  to  save  any- 
thing is  to  melt  the  wax  and  honey  and  market  them  sepa- 
rately. The  section  of  honey  is  a  difficult  package  for  the 
retail  merchant  to  handle  and  the  careless  clerk  may  often 
spoil  a  section  by  running  his  thumb  into  it.  For  this 
reason  and  also  for  the  sake  of  cleanliness,  comb-honey 
sections  in  sealed  cartons  appeal  strongly  to  retailers  and 
consumers. 

Restrictions  in  comb-honey  production. 

In  view  of  the  demands  of  the  market  and  the  tendency 
toward  the  production  of  only  the  best  grades  of  comb-honey, 
there  are  certain  restrictions  which  should  apply  in  its  pro- 
duction. Where  the  honey  is  dark  or  where  honeys  from 
various  sources  are  mixed  in  the  combs  by  honey-flows 
intermingling,  extracted-honey  should  be  produced.  Honeys 
which  granulate  quickly,  although  they  may  be  of  fine  color, 
are  undesirable  for  comb-honey  production.  The  recent 
increase  in  the  sale  of  alfalfa  comb-honey  has  caused  many 
grocers  to  hesitate  to  buy  any  comb-honey,  for  fear  previous 
unpleasant  experiences  may  be  repeated  and  leave  them 
with  unsalable  granulated  comb-honey  on  hand.  Where 
the  honey-flows  are  slow  or  intermittent,  extracted-honey 
production  will  be  found  more  profitable.  These  general 
restrictions  will  of  course  not  apply  in  certain  local  market 
conditions.  For  example,  there  is  demand  for  buckwheat 
comb-honey  in  some  Hmited  regions,  whereas  on  the  general 
market  it  has  no  sale.  It  is  evident  from  a  survey  of  the 
whole  field  that  many  beekeepers  who  now  produce  comb- 
honey  are  doing  it  to  their  own  detriment  while  an  increase 
in  the  production  of  comb-honey  in  the  more  northern  clover 
sections  would  be  beneficial  to  the  honey  markets.  The 
limitations  in  comb-honey  production  will  possibly  increase 


306  Beekeeping 

the  price  of  the  better  grades  of  comb-honey  and  make  it 
profitable  for  some  northern  beekeepers  again  to  produce 
comb-honey.  The  restrictions  here  enumerated  obviously 
require  that  comb-honey  be  produced  by  speciahsts,  for 
the  careless  beekeeper  and  the  man  who  can  devote  but 
little  time  to  his  bees  cannot  hope  to  produce  the  finer 
grades  of  comb-honey,  except  by  the  accidents  of  excep- 
tional honey-flows. 

Honey-house. 

The  apparatus  for  the  extensive  production  of  comb- 
honey  is  rather  complex.  The  first  requirement  is  a  build- 
ing for  storing  apparatus,  preparing  supers  and  caring  for 
the  crop.  This  building  should  be  rat-proof  and  is  fre- 
quently built  over  the  cellar  in  which  the  bees  are  wintered, 
for  commercial  comb-honey  production  is  largely  restricted 
to  the  North.  In  managing  out-apiaries,  it  is  customary 
to  carry  out  the  empty  supers  and  bring  them  back  com- 
pleted to  the  central  workshop.  The  place  in  which  the 
comb-honey  is  stored  should  be  the  warmest  room  in  the 
building  and  should  be  arranged  for  artificial  heat  when 
necessary.  It  should  be  sealed  to  keep  out  insects  and  to 
allow  fumigation. 

Hives  for  comb-honey. 

The  best  hive  for  comb-honey  is  a  matter  of  dispute. 
While  the  Langstroth  hive  is  used  more  than  any  other, 
the  number  of  frames  to  be  used  is  much  debated.  If  the 
locality  will  permit  of  the  building  up  of  the  colony  to  fill 
ten  frames  completely,  a  hive  of  this  capacity  is  preferable, 
but  in  many  places  this  is  virtually  impossible  and  an  eight- 
frame  hive  gives  better  results.  Of  course  the  colony  oc- 
cupies the  same  hive  throughout  the  year  and  the  need  of 
abundant  stores  in  winter  gives  the  preference  to  the  ten- 
frame  hive  but,  by  care,  the  disadvantage  of  the  smaller 
capacity  of  the  eight-frame  hive  for  winter  stores  may  be 
overcome.     Whatever  hive  is  used,  for  the  production  of 


The  Production  of  Comb-Honey  307 

fine  comb-honey  accuracy  in  the  manufacture  is  far  more 
essential  than  if  it  were  to  be  used  in  extracting.  The 
bee-spaces  should  be  accurate  and  if  self-spacing  frames 
are  used  care  should  be  exercised  that  the  deposits  of  prop- 
olis do  not  force  them  out  of  place.  Sectional  hives,  in 
which  the  brood  occupies  two  or  more  shallow  hive-bodies, 
are  preferred  by  some  beekeepers,  especially  among  comb- 
honey  producers.  While  they  have  much  to  commend 
them,  they  do  not  seem  to  gain  in  popularity. 

Evolution  of  the  section. 

The  early  development  of  the  section  was  suggested  in 
an  earher  paragraph.  The  first  ones  were  made  of  four 
pieces  of  wood  and,  after  the  wide  adoption  of  the  Lang- 
stroth  frame,  sections  4j  inches  square  became  in  a  sense 
standard,  since  eight  of  these  sections  fit  into  a  Langstroth 
frame  (of  special  construction,  Fig.  134).  In  1873,  Alexis 
Fiddes,  Centralia,  lUinois,  made  a  one-piece  section  by 
folding  thin  strips  of  wood  on  a  saw-cut  at  the  corner  and 
to  him  probably  belongs  the  credit  of  making  the  first  sec- 
tion of  this  type.  In  1876  he  described  these  in  a  note  in 
"  Gleanings  in  Bee  Culture."  In  1876,  two  firms  put  such 
sections  on  the  market  but  it  appears  that  previously  other 
beekeepers  had  made  them  on  this  plan.  In  1883,  Jas. 
Forncrook,  Watertown,  Wisconsin,  claimed  a  basic  patent 
on  these  sections  and  brought  suit  against  A.  I.  Root,  Medina, 
Ohio,  for  infringement.  A  decision  of  the  Circuit  Court  in 
1884,  upheld  by  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  in  1888, 
declared  this  patent  valueless  on  the  ground  that  originality 
was  not  substantiated.  Fiddes  is  credited  with  first  making 
such  sections.  Following  this  decision,  the  manufacture 
of  one-piece  sections  became  general  and  they  practically 
replaced  the  four-piece  sections,  except  in  certain  limited 
localities  where  they  are  still  used.  They  are  now  made 
with  a  V-shaped  groove  which  folds  more  easily  and  is 
stronger  than  the  former  method  of  cutting.  Basswood  is 
used  in  making  these. 


308 


Beekeeping 


Types  of  sections. 
There  is  considerable  variation  in  the  types  of  section 

used  and  correspondingly  in  the  supers  (upper  stories)  and 

fixtures  made  to  hold 
them.  The  standardiza- 
tion of  these  appHances 
is  often  discussed  and  is 
greatly  to  be  desired. 
There  are  two  styles  now 
in  common  use  which 
differ  in  the  method  of 
spacing.  They  are  now 
almost  all  made  of  bass- 
wood,  I  inch  thick,  as 
corners.     The   bee- way  section 


■^^^^  ^^^^^^^^^ 


Fig. 


125.  —  Diagram  to  show  method  of 
spacing  bee- way  sections. 


this  bends  readily  at  the 
(Fig.  125)  is  wide  (usu- 
ally 1|  inches,  but  rarely 
1|  or  2  inches)  and  has 
passageways  cut  in  two 
(sometimes  three  or  four) 
sides  to  allow  bees  to  enter 
the  sections,  comb  build- 
ing in  the  individual  sec- 
tions being  limited  by  plain 
separators  placed  between 
them.  The  plain  sections 
(Fig.  126)  are  narrow,  If  or  \\  inches,  and  are  separated 
one  from  another  by  ''fences"  on  which  are  cleats  to  hold 


Fig.  126,  —  Diagram  to  show  method  of 
spacing  plain  sections. 


Fig.  127.  —  Comparison  of  plain  and  bee-way  sections, 

the    fence    away  from  the  section  to   allow  room  for  the 
passage  of  bees.     The  bee-way  sections  are  usually  made 


The  Production  of  Comh-Honey 


309 


Fig.  128.  —  Comparison   of   tall   and 
square  sections  of  equal  capacity. 


4j  inches  square,  while  the 
plain  sections  are  of  the  same 
dimensions,  or  4  by  5,  3f  by 
5  or  4i  by  4f.  The  con- 
struction of  these  sections 
and  the  methods  of  spacing 
are  shown  by  illustrations 
(Figs.  125,  126  and  127). 
The  advantages  of  the  bee- 
way  sections  are  protection  of  the  honey  by  the  wider 
wood  and  extra  strength,  and  some  markets  prefer  them. 
The  plain  sections  are  simpler  in  construction,  cheaper, 
easily  cleaned  of  propolis    and   more  economical  of  space 

in  packing.  The  tall 
plain  sections  give  the 
impression  of  larger 
size  when  compared 
with  a  square  section 
of    equal   capacity    (Fig. 

Fig.  129.  —  T-super.  128) . 

Types  of  supers. 

The  various  supers  used  to  hold  these  sections  differ  in 
the  method  of  support,  the  protection  of  the  outside  of  the 
section  and  the  degree 
of  free  communication 
from  section  to  section. 
The  types  in  most  com- 
mon use  are  illustrated 
(Figs.  129,  130,  131,  132 
and  133)  and  little  needs 
to  be  added  by  way  of 
description.  In  the  T- 
super  (Fig.  129),  the  sections  are  supported  by  strips  of  tin 
(shaped  like  an  inverted  T  in  cross  section),  no  protection 
being  given  to  the  sections  on  the  top  or  bottom  and,  when 
2-bee-way  sections  are  used,  as  is  customary,  there  is  no 


Fig. 


130.  —  Super    for    square    bee- way 
sections  with  section  holders. 


310 


Beekeeping 


passageway   horizontally    in    the    super.      The    super    for 
square  bee-way  sections   with   section   holders    (Fig.    130) 

is  used  perhaps  more 
generally  than  any  other. 
The  sections  are  not  pro- 
tected at  the  top  and  the 
communication  between 
sections  is  the  same  as  in 
the  T-super.  For  plain 
sections,  the  super  cor- 
responding to  the  one 
just  described  is  shown 
(4  by  5  inches)  the  corre- 


FiG.  131. 


—  Super  for  square  plain  sections 
with  section  holders. 


in  Fig.  131  and  for  tall  sections 
sponding  type  is  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  132.  In  the 
two  last  named,  cleated 
fences  are  used  to  provide 
passage  for  the  bees  ver- 
tically and  there  is  little 
opportunity  for  horizontal 
passage.  To  provide  pro- 
tection for  the  top  of  the 
sections  a  wide  frame  is 
tration    (Fig.    133)    this 


Fig.  132.  —  Super  for  tall  plain  sections. 


is 


Fig.  133. —  Super  for  tall  C4i  by  4f) 
sections  in  wide  frames.  Shallow  ex- 
tracting frames  are  shown  at  the  sides. 


tacked  to 
were  used. 


one  side  of   the 


sometimes  used,  and  in  the  illus- 
shown  in  combination  with 
shallow  extracting  combs 
at  the  sides  devised  for  the 
purpose  of  inducing  the 
bees  to  begin  work  in  the 
supers  quickly.  The  mod- 
ern wide  frame  is  a  rever- 
sion to  the  type  formerly 
much  used,  except  that 
the  older  types  (often 
for  eight  sections,  Fig. 
134)  had  a  tin  separator 
frame   and   bee-way  sections 


The  Production  of  Comb-Honey 


311 


Fig.    134.  —  Old  type  of  wide  frame  for  holding 
sections. 


Other  equipment. 

The  other  apparatus  needed  in  extensive  comb-honey 
production  includes  some  of  the  general  apiary  equipment 
discussed  in 
Chapter  III.  A 
supply  of  shallow 
extracting  supers 
may  often  be 
used  to  advan- 
tage to  induce 
bees  to  begin 
storing  in  supers, 
but  the  combina- 
tion super  (Fig. 
133)  is  generally 

preferable.  If  a  colony  is  as  strong  as  it  should  be  at  the 
beginning  of  the  honey-flow  there  will  be  little  need  for 
shallow  extracting  supers.  The  proper  use  of  bait  sec- 
tions is  as  good  as  either  of  these  methods. 

Preparation  of  the  sections. 

The  folding  of  the  section  and  the  fastening  of  the  founda- 
tion in  place  are  sometimes  done  in  one  machine,  but  in 
most  apiaries  these  things  are  accomplished  by  two  opera- 
tions. To  fold  the  sections  (Fig.  135)  without  excessive 
breakage,  they  must  be  damp  to  allow  the  wood  to  bend. 
If  they  are  dry  they  may  be  moistened  by  pouring  hot 
water  down  the  V-grooves  while  still  in  the  crate,  the  stream 
of  course  being  directed  only  on  the  grooves.  The  whole 
crate  may  be  wrapped  in  a  wet  blanket  for  a  day  before  the 
folding. 

The  use  of  foundation  is  necessary  to  insure  straight 
combs,  all  of  worker  cells,  and  is  essential  in  the  production 
of  fancy  comb-honey.  The  foundation  should  be  as  thin 
as  can  be  used  without  being  torn  by  the  bees  and  usually 
the  grade  known  in  the  trade  as  'Hhin-super"  is  preferable. 
While  only  narrow  strips  at  the  top  are  sometimes  used,  it 


312 


Beekeeping 


is  decidedly  preferable  to  use  full  sheets  to  insure  uniformity 
of  comb.  The  sheet  is  fastened  to  the  top  of  the  section,  is 
sUghtly  narrower  than  the  inside  of  the  section  so  that  it 
can  swing  freely  and  extends  to  within  f  to  J  inch  of  the 
bottom.  To  secure  better  attachment  of  the  comb  to  the 
bottom,  it  is  becoming  more  commonly  practiced  to  put 
a  f  inch  strip  of  foundation  at  the  bottom  and  then  make 
the  top  piece  of  foundation  long  enough  to  extend  to  within 
I  to  J  inch  of  the  bottom  starter.  The 
desirability  of  using  the  bottom  starter 
is  somewhat  determined  by  the  character 
of  the  flow. 

The  pieces  of  foundation  are  usually 
fastened  in  place  by  a  machine  in  which 
a  heated  metal  plate  is  brought  near  or 
in  contact  with  the  wood  at  the  point 
where  the  foundation  is  to  be  attached 
and  the  foundation  is  brought  against 
it.  The  heated  plate  is  then  promptly 
removed  and  the  melted  wax  fastens 
the  foundation  to  the  wood.  Grooved 
sections  which  fasten  a  full  sheet  of 
foundation  in  place  as  they  are  folded 
are  sometimes  used  (Fig.  132)  while 
some  beekeepers  (especially  in  Europe) 
prefer  a  section  spHt  on  top  and  sides 
in  which  the  foundation  is  continuous 
through  a  row  of  sections. 
The  work  of  folding  the  sections,  putting  in  foundation 
and  placing  them  in  supers  should  be  done  in  advance  of 
the  honey-flow  and  this  should  usually  be  the  winter  em- 
ployment of  the  comb-honey  producer.  Enough  should 
be  prepared  to  care  for  the  maximum  crop,  for  the  bee- 
keeper has  no  time  for  this  work  when  the  rush  is  on.  Three 
supers  for  each  colony  should  be  the  minimum  number. 
The  prepared  supers  should  be  carefully  protected  from 
dust. 


Fig. 


135.  —   Section 
folder. 


The  Production  of  Comb-Honey  313 

Manipulation  of  the  bees. 

In  the  successful  production  of  comb-honey,  the  skill  of 
the  beekeeper  is  more  exercised  than  in  any  other  branch  of 
beekeeping.  From  this  statement  the  inference  should  not 
be  made  that  the  producers  of  comb-honey  are,  as  a  class, 
better  beekeepers  than  those  who  extract  their  honey,  for 
there  are  many  beekeepers  who  put  sections  on  their  colonies 
and  yet  fail  to  get  the  maximum  returns  and  lose  the  best 
of  the  crop.  It  is  true,  however,  that  much  of  our  knowledge 
of  the  best  methods  of  handling  bees  has  come  from  the 
work  of  the  exceptional  comb-honey  producers. 

It  is  useless  to  expect  a  weak  colony  to  work  well  in  sec- 
tions and  it  is  therefore  first  of  all  necessary  for  the  comb- 
honey  producer  to  see  that  each  colony  has  an  abundance 
of  workers  at  the  beginning  of  the  honey-flow,  as  described 
in  an  earlier  chapter.  In  the  building  up  of  the  apiary  in 
preparation  for  the  honey-flow,  it  is  often  impossible  to  get 
all  colonies  up  to  the  standard  and  it  is  a  quite  common 
practice  to  utilize  the  weaker  colonies  for  extracted-honey 
production  or  to  take  frames  of  brood  from  the  weaker 
colonies  to  build  up  those  of  nearly  full  strength  (p.  259), 
thereby  practically  abandoning  the  weakest  colonies  for 
honey-production. 

Keeping  bees  in  proper  condition. 

If  a  colony  is  of  maximum  strength  when  the  honey-flow 
begins,  it  is  ready  for  the  harvest.  Every  hive  should  be 
packed  with  brood  and  honey  and  should  have  an  abundance 
of  young  bees.  If  the  colony  has  previously  occupied  two 
stories,  as  many  of  them  should  if  properly  manipulated, 
they  are  reduced  to  one  story  and  any  extra  frames  of  brood 
are  used  to  build  up  colonies  that  need  them.  This  crowd- 
ing of  the  brood-nest,  so  essential  to  the  highest  success, 
is,  however,  just  the  condition  favorable  for  swarming,  and 
unless  care  is  exercised  the  efforts  of  the  beekeeper  are 
rendered  less  effective.  If  the  colony  casts  a  swarm  the 
working  force  is  reduced  and  the  two  parts  are  not  able 


314  Beekeeping 

to  do  as  much  as  is  possible  without  such  a  division.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  manipulations  of  the  beekeeper  may- 
prevent  swarming,  but  still  the  bees  may  be  put  in  such  a 
condition  that  they  do  not  work  well.  It  is  necessary  not 
only  that  the  bees  be  kept  from  swarming  but  that  the 
gathering  instinct  shall  overpower  all  other  activities.  In- 
crease in  the  number  of  colonies  during  the  honey-flow  or 
just  before  it  is  therefore  expensive  and  should  be  avoided. 
Swarming  is  a  far  more  serious  problem  in  comb-honey 
production  than  in  any  other  type  of  beekeeping.  The 
beekeeper  is  therefore  called  upon  to  exercise  all  his  skill 
in  preventing  and  controlling  this  tendency.  The  manipu- 
lations used  to  prevent  swarming  are  discussed  in  an  earlier 
chapter.  In  comb-honey  production  the  tendency  to  swarm 
is  so  marked  that  an  examination  of  each  colony  once  in 
seven  to  ten  days  is  usually  necessary  to  do  the  things  that 
conditions  may  call  for.  In  case  swarms  issue  in  spite  of 
the  precautionary  measures,  various  methods  are  available 
for  handling  the  swarm  and  for  the  disposal  of  the  brood 
to  best  advantage,  which  have  been  previously  discussed 
(p.  275). 

Manipulation  of  supers. 

One  of  the  most  important  factors  in  success  with  6omb- 
honey  is  putting  the  supers  on  in  the  right  order  and  at  the 
right  time.  This  may  not  only  do  much  toward  preventing 
swarming,  but  is  an  important  stimulus  to  storing  the  maxi- 
mum amount  of  honey.  No  general  rule  can  be  laid  down 
for  the  number  of  supers  that  should  be  put  on  a  colony; 
they  are  simply  units  in  the  part  of  the  hive  devoted  to 
storing  which  must  be  given  to  the  colony  as  needed  and 
not  before  or  after.  By  proper  management  supers  may  be 
put  on  slightly  before  they  are  needed  but  they  should 
usually  not  all  be  put  on  at  once.  Many  beekeepers  make 
their  greatest  mistake  in  this  feature  and  wait  until  one 
super  is  filled  and  then  remove  it,  substituting  an  empty 
one  if  needed.     This  not   only   cramps  the   colony  more 


The  Production  of  Comh-Honey 


315 


than  necessary  but,  when  the  new  super  is  put  on,  the  bees 
go  into  it  almost  as  slowly  as  they  do  into  a  super  given 
at  the  beginning  of  a  flow.  In  the  meantime  the  brood- 
chamber  is  becoming  clogged  with  honey  at  the  expense  of 
the  brood.  To  give  supers  as  needed  necessitates  careful 
observation  of  the  sources  of  nectar.  Supers  should  be 
given  in  time  so  that  there  is  never  a  lack  of  some  space 
for  comb  building.  Furthermore,  space  for  ripening  nectar 
is  needed  and  comb  building  should  progress  steadily  so 
that  the  bees  will  never  have  honey  for  which  there  are  no 
empty  cells.  If,  early  in  the  honey-flow,  nectar  is  coming 
in  rapidly,  a  new  super  may  be  added  to  strong  colonies  as 


r 

2     ■= 

/    — 

3    — 

^ 

•^ 

\ 

r 

3     =» 

P 

1 

2     =« 

3    =-= 

/     =« 

2     «= 

^    =-=, 

4    = 

^ 

^ 

BIB 

Fig.  136.  —  Diagram  showing  arrangement  of  the  supers. 

soon  as  work  is  well  begun  in  the  one  put  on  previously. 
Weaker  colonies  should  qf  course  not  be  given  supers  so 
rapidly.  In  any  event,  supers  should  be  added  before  the 
bees  are  in  actual  need  of  more  storing  space. 

The  position  of  new  supers  is  to  be  determined  by  the 
probable  future  needs  of  the  colony.  If  the  prospects  in- 
dicate that  an  additional  super  will  be  filled,  it  should  be 
put  below  the  supers  already  on,  next  to  the  brood-chamber, 
while  if  there  is  a  probability  that  the  additional  super  will 
not  be  used  it  should  be  placed  on  top,  thus  crowding  the 
bees  into  the  earlier  supers.  In  slow  honey-flows,  supers 
may  also  be  put  on  top.  In  a  good  honey-flow  an  empty 
super  should  be  kept  on  top  at  all  times  so  that  it  is  avail- 
able to  the  bees  if  the  beekeeper  is  delayed  in  reaching  the 


316  Beekeeping 

colony  to  give  it  more  room.  The  proper  order  of  the 
supers  on  the  hive  is  shown  in  Fig.  136,  it  being  assumed 
in  this  case  that  super  5  is  the  one  which  is  used  near  the 
end  of  the  flow.  It  will  be  noticed  in  the  case  of  supers 
1,  2  and  3,  that  after  being  placed  just  above  the  brood- 
chamber  to  be  started,  they  are  then  put  on  the  top  in  the 
next  move.  This  carries  up  the  wax-building  bees  where 
they  are  as  far  from  the  brood-chamber  as  possible  and  this 
is  perhaps  an  important  factor  in  swarm  prevention. 

Removal  of  supers. 

Comb-honey  intended  for  market  should  be  removed  as 
soon  as  possible  after  it  is  finished  to  prevent  discoloration 
of  the  cappings,  known  as  ''travel  stain."  The  extensive 
beekeeper  does  not  have  time  to  remove  the  sections  in- 
dividually but  should  give  additional  room  just  rapidly 
enough  to  make  it  possible  to  complete  all  the  sections  in  a 
super  about  the  same  time.  After  the  super  is  removed 
there  are  often  some  that  are  not  completed  and  these  may 
be  sorted  out  in  the  shop  and  the  unfinished  ones  may  be 
put  in  supers  and  given  to  colonies.  C.  C.  Miller  believes 
that  some  colonies  are  better  at  this  finishing  work  than 
others  and  so  he  chooses  certain  ones  for  this  work.  Dur- 
ing the  finishing,  bees  should  be  crowded  to  insure  its  being 
completed  before  the  honey-flow  ceases. 

At  the  close  of  the  honey-flow,  the  surplus  space  should 
be  reduced  and  all  supers  in  which  no  work  has  been  done 
should  be  removed.  As  soon  as  practical,  the  surplus 
space  should  be  reduced  to  one  super  but  there  should 
always  be  room  for  the  ripening  of  new  nectar.  If  desired, 
extracting  combs  may  be  used  to  receive  the  honey  at  the 
close  of  the  honey-flow. 

Caring  for  the  crop. 

In  a  heavy  honey-flow  most  of  the  honey  is  removed 
before  the  flow  ceases.  In  this  case  the  bees  are  readily 
removed  by  smoking  and  brushing  them  out.    At  the  close 


The  Production  of  Comh-Honey  317 

of  the  honey-flow,  all  the  supers  should  be  removed  to  pre- 
vent honey  from  being  carried  down  to  the  brood-chamber 
and  to  keep  the  bees  from  propolizing  the  sections  excessively. 
At  this  time  bee-escapes  (Fig.  31)  greatly  increase  the  ease 
of  taking  off  supers  and,  while  they  are  useful  at  any  time, 
they  are  specially  helpful  after  the  honey-flow  ceases.  The 
honey  should  be  taken  to  the  shop  and  protected  carefully 
from  robbing  bees. 

Preparation  of  bait  sections. 

Before  storing  the  supers,  any  unfilled  sections  should 
be  sorted  out  and  the  partially  filled  ones  may  be  given 
back  to  the  bees  to  be  emptied.  If  no  disease  is  present 
in  the  apiary  or  in  the  neighborhood  and  if  there  are  a  con- 
siderable number  of  such  sections,  they  may  simply  be 
exposed  where  the  bees  can  get  the  honey  from  them  and 
they  should  be  left  there  until  a  day  or  two  after  the  bees 
have  ceased  to  visit  them.  Bees  often  leave  sealed  honey 
untouched  under  these  circumstances.  If  there  are  only 
a  few  supers,  they  may  be  stacked  on  colonies  and  should 
be  left  there  for  a  day  after  the  bees  have  taken  out  the 
honey.  In  this  way  excitement  is  reduced  to  the  minimum 
and  general  robbing  is  prevented.  The  emptied  sections 
should  then  be  saved  for  bait  sections  the  following  season. 

Storage  in  supers. 

The  full  supers  are  so  placed  in  the  honey-house  as  to 
permit  free  circulation  of  air,  by  laying  them  crosswise  or 
by  putting  sticks  between  the  supers.  The  storage  room 
must  be  kept  dry  with  the  windows  open  (but  screened) 
during  warm  weather.  During  damp,  cool  weather,  the 
windows  should  be  closed  and  the  room  may  be  heated 
artificially,  sudden  changes  in  temperature  being  avoided. 
If  wax-moths  are  abundant,  the  honey  may  be  fumigated 
with  sulphur  fumes  or  carbon  bisulfide  (p.  414). 

Comb-honey  should  be  prepared  for  market  as  speedily 
as  practical  after  its  removal  from  the  hive.     This  is  specially 


318  Beekeeping 

true  if  the  honey  granulates  quickly.  If  it  is  necessary  to 
store  it  until  cold  weather,  the  storage  room  must  be  kept 
continuously  warm  and  dry. 

Bulk  comb-honey. 

In  Texas  and  in  some  other  parts  of  the  South,  honey  is 
frequently  sold  in  the  comb,  being  cut  from  large  combs  to 
any  size  desired.  These  pieces  are  usually  put  into  a  can, 
extracted-honey  being  poured  over  them  to  fill  the  spaces. 
This  is  commonly  known  as  ''chunk  honey,"  but  one  German 
writer  on  beekeeping,  in  referring  to  this  American  product, 
inadvertently  changed  the  ch  to  j.  The  advantages  in  pro- 
ducing honey  in  this  form  are :  (1)  it  ships  well ;  (2)  crowd- 
ing of  the  bees  is  not  so  necessary  since  perfect  capping  is 
not  essential;  (3)  the  bees  work  more  readily  in  the  larger 
combs,  and  (4)  the  beekeeper  is  not  called  upon  to  exercise 
so  much  skill  in  the  manipulation  of  the  colonies.  The 
manipulations  more  nearly  approach  those  incident  to  the 
production  of  extracted-honey.  Since  such  honey  usually 
sells  readily  locally  and  since  beekeepers  claim  to  receive 
relatively  more  for  it  than  for  extracted-honey,  no  serious 
objection  can  be  raised  to  its  production,  but  beekeepers 
should  be  warned  that  the  general  honey  markets  make 
no  demand  for  honey  of  this  type.  Bulk  comb-honey  is 
produced  in  small  quantities  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States 
but,  except  in  the  regions  mentioned,  its  production  is  con- 
fined to  the  less  skilled  beekeepers. 

Bulk  comb-honey  for  home  use. 

When  all  the  honey  produced  is  for  home  consumption, 
it  is  an  excellent  plan  to  have  all  the  honey  stored  in  shallow 
extracting  frames,  the  length  of  the  regular  frames,  but 
only  5|  inches  deep.  Thin-super  foundation  may  be  used 
and  the  frames  should  not  be  wired.  After  being  filled,  the 
frames  may  be  stored  in  supers  and  a  family  that  consumes 
honey  freely  (as  all  families  should)  will  make  short  work 
of  the  honey  in  a  frame.     For  serving  this  honey,  a  con- 


The  Production  of  Comh-Honey  319 

venient,  though  perhaps  not  artistic,  method  is  to  put  the 
comb  in  a  tureen.  The  frames  may  be  refilled  with  founda- 
tion again  and  again.  This  is  recommended  to  beekeepers 
with  few  colonies  as  simpler,  cheaper  and  more  profitable 
than  comb-honey  production. 

Cut  comb-honey  for  market. 

Another  style  of  package  has  recently  been  devised  by 
the  A.  I.  Root  Co.,  Medina,  Ohio,  which  is  attractive  and 
promises  to  have  a  great  future.  Small  pieces  of  comb 
are  cut,  drained  of  the  honey  in  the  cut  cells,  wrapped  in 
two  thicknesses  of  waxed  paper  and  finally  put  in  an  attrac- 
tive carton.  A  number  of  these  cartons  are  then  packed 
in  a  box  for  delivery.  The  individual  cartons  are  sold  in 
dining  cars,  restaurants  and  hotels,  naturally  at  a  high 
price  for  the  amount  of  honey  served.  So  far  the  demand 
for  this  honey  is  limited,  but  beekeepers  so  situated  that 
they  have  their  winters  free  to  put  up  and  sell  such  honey 
may  find  it  profitable.  The  comparative  ease  with  which 
honey  can  be  handled  in  this  way  suggests  the  desirability 
of  a  larger  piece  of  honey,  weighing  perhaps  a  pound,  wrapped 
in  the  same  way.  Such  honey  would  ship  better,  it  would 
all  be  "fancy"  and  should  bring  a  high  price  on  the  market 
when  a  trade  is  built  up.  As  far  as  the  writer  knows,  this 
has  not  been  tried  in  the  United  States. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

MARKETING   THE  HONEY  CROP 

The  production  of  honey  necessitates  skill  in  the  manage- 
ment of  bees  but  the  preparation  of  the  crop  for  market  and 
the  selling  of  the  honey  are  equally  important  to  financial 
success  and  are  sometimes  equally  difficult.  In  the  follow- 
ing discussion,  the  procedure  in  getting  honey  into  its  final 
package  ready  for  the  consumer  will  first  be  considered, 
after  which  some  general  principles  of  honey  selhng,  which 
apply  to  all  types  of  honey,  will  be  briefly  given. 

PREPARATION   OF   EXTRACTED-HONEY   FOR   MARKET 

The  beekeeping  part  of  the  work  may  be  considered  as 
ended  when  the  honey  reaches  the  tank  or  barrel.  Honeys 
from  different  sources  should  so  far  as  possible  be  extracted 
separately,  for  they  are  not  of  equal  money  value  and  the 
mixing  of  honeys  of  two  colors  or  flavors  usually  reduces 
the  wholesale  price  of  the  mixture  to  that  of  the  least  valuable. 

Wholesale  packages. 

The  usual  wholesale  package  is  the  5-gallon  (60-pound) 
square  tin  can,  such  cans  most  often  being  shipped  two 
in  a  crate  (Fig.  137).  Most  of  the  foreign  honeys  that 
reach  the  United  States  markets  come  in  barrels  and 
these  are  also  much  used  by  southern  beekeepers.  In  the 
West  they  are  rarely  used  and  are  not  considered  safe. 
Considerable  care  must  be  exercised  in  their  choice  and  in 
preparing  them  to  receive  the  honey.  Second-hand  alcohol 
or  whisky  barrels  are  suitable,  provided  they  have  not  been 

320 


Marketing  the  Honey  Crop 


321 


charred,  but  it  is  better  to  have  them  of  some  wood  softer 
than  oak.  They  must  be  kept  in  a  dry  place  and  before 
using  must  be  made  as  dry  as  it  is  possible  to  get  them,  the 
hoops  thoroughly  tightened  and  the  barrels  tested.  The 
inside  may  then  be  coated  with  paraffin  as  an  extra  pre- 
caution, but  it  should  be 
remembered  that  the 
barrels  must  be  tight 
first.  If  the  wood  in 
the  barrel  is  wet,  honey 
will  take  up  this  moist- 
ure, causing  the  wood 
to  shrink  and  the  barrel 
to  leak.  The  usual  sizes 
have  a  capacity  of  about 
thirty  gallons,  but  those 
holding  fifty  gallons  are 
frequently  used.  Unless 
one  is  producing  a  cheap 
grade  of  honey  for  which 
a  cheap  package  is  required,  it  is  better  and  safer  to 
use  the  5-gallon  tin  cans. 

Retail  packages  for  local  markets. 

In  preparing  extracted-honey  for  the  local  trade,  it  is 
customary  to  put  it  in  cans  or  tin  buckets  of  2 J,  5  or  10 
pounds  capacity.  Fruit  jars  and  jelly  glasses  are  also 
commonly  used.  These  containers  can  be  considered  only 
as  articles  to  hold  honey  and  are  entirely  unsuitable  for  a 
market  demanding  neat  attractive  packages.  They  may 
often  be  used  in  less  exacting  markets  and  carry  with  them 
the  advantage  of  being  useful  after  the  honey  is  eaten. 
To  the  beekeeper,  they  are  desirable  on  account  of  their 
low  cost  in  case  his  market  will  not  pay  a  good  price  for  his 
honey.  Many  beekeepers  are,  however,  guilty  of  putting 
fancy  honey  into  these  unattractive  receptacles,  thereby 
stamping  their  product  as  a  cheap  article. 


Fig.    137. 


Crate    holding   two    5-ga]lon 
honey  cans. 


322  Beekeeping 

High-class  retail  packages. 

The  bottling  of  honey  for  the  higher  class  markets  requires 
considerable  skill  and  the  beekeeper  usually  leaves  this  work 
to  the  jobber,  who  has  the  necessary  equipment  and  facilities 
for  buying  honey  from  various  sources.  There  can  be  little 
question,  however,  that  many  beekeepers  could  well  afford 
to  go  to  the  additional  trouble  and  expense  of  putting  honey 
in  attractive,  artistic  packages  for  the  trade  that  is  ready  to 
pay  a  good  price  for  a  high-class  product. 

An  important  consideration  is  the  shape  of  the  bottle. 
If  possible  this  should  not  be  a  stock  bottle  such  as  is  used 
either  by  other  beekeepers  or  is  obviously  employed  in  the 
bottling  of  other  commodities.  An  odd  shape  or  a  bottle 
made  for  the  purpose  on  an  original  design  will  prove  a  good 
advertisement.  The  neck  of  the  bottle  must  of  course  be 
wide.  A  cheap,  homely  label  will  do  much  to  render  a 
package  unattractive.  Above  all,  a  label  should  not  be 
used  which  obviously  is  used  by  hundreds  of  beekeepers 
and  which  has  the  name  of  the  producer  printed  in  a  space 
left  vacant  in  the  making  of  the  original  design.  It  is  possible 
to  make  labels  in  this  way  which  do  not  tell  their  history  too 
loudly,  but  to  a  bottler  who  sells  honej^  in  considerable  quan- 
tities the  expense  of  having  a  distinctive,  attractive  label 
designed  and  lithographed  will  be  many  times  repaid.  The 
beekeeper  should  note  that  the  extensive  bottlers  have 
learned  this. 

Blending. 

In  a  single  apiary  it  is  impossible  to  get  honey  of  the  same 
flavor  and  color  year  after  year  because  of  differences  in  the 
nectar  secretion,  due  to  climatic  differences.  It  is  rarely 
desirable  to  attempt  to  bottle  honey  of  one  source,  such  as 
white  clover,  because  of  seasonal  variations  which  the  con- 
sumer does  not  understand.  If,  however,  honeys  from  two 
or  more  sources  are  blended,  the  seasonal  variations  are 
hidden  and  it  is  possible  to  give  the  consumer  honey  which 
looks  the  same  and  has  the  same  taste  year  after  year.     In 


Marketing  the  Honey  Crop  323 

making  up  a  blend,  it  is  furthermore  not  desirable  to  use 
all  water-white  honeys,  for  at  some  time  the  supply  of  such 
honeys  may  be  limited,  and  the  consumer  will  not  under- 
stand why  honey  of  a  certain  brand  has  suddenly  become 
darker.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  average  consumer 
is  ignorant  of  the  facts  that  honey  varies  and  that  honeys 
from  different  sources  are  unlike  in  color  and  flavor  and 
it  is  useless  for  one  bottler  to  attempt  to  educate  the  entire 
community  on  these  points  in  which  the  consumers  have 
no  interest.  If  he  sells  pure  honey  that  has  a  good  flavor 
and  if  he  can  duplicate  it  when  desired  no  further  informa- 
tion is  asked  by  the  average  consumer.  In  making  a  blend 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  include  some  sage  or  tupelo  honey  as 
these  granulate  slowly  and  granulation  injures  the  salability 
of  bottled  honey.  An  important  consideration  is  the  choice 
of  honeys  which  can  be  obtained  in  quantity  year  after 
year.  To  bottle  honey  for  the  better  markets,  it  is,  there- 
fore, usually  necessary  to  buy  some  from  various  sources 
and  the  beekeeper  who  retails  honey  on  a  considerable  scale 
should  not  depend  solely  on  his  own  apiaries  to  supply  him. 
In  fact,  even  an  extensive  series  of  out-apiaries  will  not 
go  far  toward  supplying  an  energetic  salesman. 

Argument  for  blending. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  chapter  the  author  consulted  a 
beekeeper  of  experience  and  the  preceding  paragraph  was 
criticized  on  the  ground  that  the  blending  of  honeys  hides 
the  characteristic  flavor  of  honey  from  each  source  and, 
therefore,  the  flavor  of  a  blend  is  usually  inferior  to  that 
of  some  of  the  honeys  that  go  to  make  it.  To  a  connoisseur 
this  is  true,  but  a  comparison  with  another  commodity  may 
serve  to  show  that  to  the  average  palate  this  is  not  the  case. 
The  average  purchaser  of  tea  buys  a  certain  brand  of  pack- 
age tea  because  he  knows  it  is  dependable  and  uniform.  He 
does  not  know  nor  does  he  care  what  teas  are  mixed  in  this 
blend,  but  he  may  know  enough  about  tea  to  know  that  an 
individual  kind  of  tea  varies  and  he  does  not  like  the  varia- 


324  Beekeeping 

tion.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  connoisseurs  in  tea  who, 
through  education  and  cultivation  of  taste,  are  just  as 
particular  about  the  teas  they  use  as  the  beekeeper  is  about 
his  honey.  Probably  we  could  all  become  educated  in  teas 
but  do  not  consider  it  worth  while.  Similarly,  the  consum- 
ing public  could  become  educated  in  the  flavors  of  honeys 
but  it  is  not  considered  worth  the  effort.  Therefore,  it  is 
to  the  interest  of  the  beekeeper  to  furnish  a  honey  which 
is  the  same  in  color  and  flavor  year  after  year,  so  that  the 
variation  which  comes  with  honey  from  one  source  may  be 
eliminated.  It  is  almost  a  crime  in  the  eyes  of  a  northern 
beekeeper  to  mix  any  other  honey  with  that  from  white 
clover  but,  as  he  is  not  mixing  honey  for  himself,  he  should 
give  the  consuming  public  what  it  demands. 

Heating  honey. 

In  mixing  honeys  from  various  sources  and  in  liquefying 
for  bottling  those  that  may  be  granulated,  they  must  be 
heated.  Direct  heat  must  not  be  employed  and  it  is  a  bad 
practice  to  run  steam  pipes  through  the  honey  tank.  Heat- 
ing must  always  be  done  in  a  double  boiler  and  the  tempera- 
ture of  no  part  of  the  honey  should  ever  exceed  160°  F.  A 
higher  temperature  darkens  it  and  spoils  the  flavor.  A 
high  temperature  not  only  drives  off  the  volatile  substances 
which  give  honey  the  aroma,  but  a  decomposition  of  a 
small  part  of  the  sugars  takes  place,  which  causes  darkening. 
In  this  decomposition,  products  are  formed  which  cause 
honey  to  respond  positively  to  one  of  the  chemical  tests  for 
invert  sugar,  which  is  a  common  honey  adulterant.  The 
beekeeper  who  overheats  his  honey  not  only  injures  it  but 
he  may  find  himself  accused  of  adulteration.  The  best 
plan  is  to  bring  the  honeys  to  a  temperature  of  about  130°  F. 
and  to  hold  this  temperature  for  two  or  three  hours  or  until 
every  crystal  has  dissolved.  The  temperature  is  then  raised 
quickly  to  160°  F.,  at  which  point  the  honey  should  be  put 
into  warm  bottles  and  hermetically  sealed  while  hot.  The 
bottles  should  be  filled  as  full  as  possible  so  that  there  will 


Marketing  the  Honey  Crop  325 

not  be  large  air  spaces  at  the  tops.  The  mixing  and  heating 
tank  should  be  deep  and  the  honey  should  be  drawn  from 
the  bottom  to  avoid  the  scum  which  rises  to  the  top  and  to 
free  the  honey  entirely  from  air  bubbles  which  not  only 
detract  from  the  appearance  but  hasten  granulation. 

Granulation  of  honey  in  bottles  spoils  the  appearance  but 
by  using  honeys  which  granulate  slowly  {e.g.  sage  and  tupelo) 
in  the  blend  and  by  treating  in  the  manner  just  described, 
granulation  may  be  prevented  for  a  considerable  time. 
Beekeepers  often  put  on  their  labels  the  erroneous  statement 
that  all  honeys  granulate  and  that  this  is  a  proof  of  purity. 
Artificial  invert  sugars  which  are  sometimes  used  in  the 
adulteration  of  extracted-honey  frequently  granulate  quickly. 
The  adding  of  glucose  to  prevent  granulation,  without  so 
indicating  on  the  label,  is  of  course  adulteration  and  is  not 
only  dishonest  but  unlawful. 

The  granulation  of  honey  after  bottling  is  retarded  (1)  if 
the  honey  is  free  from  air  bubbles,  (2)  if  the  bottle  is  filled 
to  the  top,  (3)  if  no  scum  has  been  poured  into  the  bottle 
with  the  honey  and  (4)  if  not  a  single  honey  crystal  is  un- 
melted  at  the  time  of  bottling.  If  these  precautions  are 
taken  even  the  rapidly  granulating  honeys  will  remain 
liquid  for  a  considerable  period. 


PREPARATION   OF   COMB-HONEY   FOR  MARKET 

In  comb-honey  production  the  beekeeper  must  do  more 
of  the  work  of  preparing  his  product  for  the  consumer  since 
he  is  producing  honey  in  retail  packages.  Recently  some 
honey  jobbers  have  been  buying  honey  and  cleaning  and 
grading  it  themselves,  because  so  many  beekeepers  fail  to 
do  this  work  carefully,  but  a  better  price  can  be  obtained  for 
comb-honey  if  it  is  properly  graded  and  cleaned  before  selling. 

Cleaning  the  sections  of  propolis. 

There  is  usually  some  propolis  on  the  sections  which 
should  be  removed.     Since  the  removed  propolis  adheres 


326  Beekeeping 

to  other  sections  if  it  comes  in  contact  with  them,  it  is  best 
to  have  a  bench  made  with  a  box  or  tray  into  which  the 
propoHs  will  fall  or  to  raise  the  sections  an  inch  or  two  above 
the  table  top  on  a  block  while  they  are  being  cleaned.  These 
appliances  also  make  it  possible  to  reach  the  bottom  of  the 
section  in  scraping.  Propolis  is  usually  scraped  by  hand,  a 
sharp  steel  case-knife  being  used.  If  the  knife  does  not 
remove  all  propolis  and  stain,  sandpaper  will  complete  the 
work.  The  scraping  of  sections  requires  care  to  prevent 
damaging  of  the  honey. 

Grading. 

In  no  other  type  of  honey  package  is  so  much  care  needed 
to  grade  properly  as  in  comb-honey.  The  grading  rules 
which  are  most  applicable  to  all  conditions  of  comb-honey 
production  throughout  the  United  States  are  those  adopted 
by  the  National  Bee  Keepers'  Association,  February  13,  1913, 
which  are  here  given. 

Sections  of  comb  honey  are  to  be  graded :  First,  as  to  finish ; 
second,  as  to  color  of  honey ;  and  third,  as  to  weight.  The  sections 
of  honey  in  any  given  case  are  to  be  so  nearly  alike  in  these  three 
respects  that  any  section  shall  be  representative  of  the  contents  of 
the  case. 

I.   Finish: 

1.  Extra  Fancy.  —  Sections  to  be  evenly  filled,  comb  firmly 
attached  to  the  four  sides,  the  sections  to  be  free  from  propolis  or 
other  pronounced  stain,  combs  and  cappings  white,  and  not  more 
than  six  unsealed  cells  on  either  side. 

2.  Fancy.  —  Sections  to  be  evenly  filled,  comb  firmly  attached 
to  the  four  sides,  the  sections  free  from  propolis  or  other  pronounced 
stain,  comb  and  cappings  white,  and  not  more  than  six  unsealed 
cells  on  either  side  exclusive  of  the  outside  row. 

3.  No.  1.  —  Sections  to  be  evenly  filled,  comb  firmly  attached  to 
the  four  sides,  the  sections  free  from  propolis  or  other  pronounced 
stain,  comb  and  cappings  white  to  slightly  off  color,  and  not  more 
than  forty  unsealed  cells,  exclusive  of  the  outside  row. 

4.  No.  2.  —  Comb  not  projecting  beyond  the  box,  attached  to  the 
sides  not  less  than  two-thirds  of  the  way  around,  and  not  more  than 
sixty  unsealed  cells  exclusive  of  the  row  adjacent  to  the  box. 


Marketing  the  Honey  Crop  327 

II.  Color: 

On  the  basis  of  color  of  the  honey,  comb  honey  is  to  be  classified 
as :  first,  white ;  second,  light  amber ;  third,  amber ;  and  f om'th, 
dark. 

III.  Weight: 

1.  Heavy.  —  No  section  designated  as  heavy  to  weigh  less  than 
fourteen  ounces. 

2.  Medium.  —  No  section  designated  as  medium  to  weigh  less 
than  twelve  ounces. 

3.  Light.  —  No  section  designated  as  light  to  weigh  less  than  ten 
ounces. 

In  describing  honey,  three  words  or  symbols  are  to  be  used,  the 
first  being  descriptive  of  the  finish,  the  second  of  color,  and  the 
third  of  weight.  As  for  example :  Fancy,  white,  heavy  (F-W-H)  ; 
No.  1,  amber,  medium  (1-A-M),  etc.  In  this  way  any  of  the  pos- 
sible combinations  of  finish,  color  and  weight  can  be  briefly 
described. 

Cull  honey. 

Cull  honey  shall  consist  of  the  following:  Honey  packed  in 
soiled  second-hand  cases  or  that  in  badly  stained  or  propolized 
sections;  sections  containing  pollen,  honey-dew  honey,  honey 
showing  signs  of  granulation,  poorly  ripened,  sour  or  "  weeping  " 
honey ;  sections  with  comb  projecting  beyond  the  box  or  well  at- 
tached to  the  box  less  than  two-thirds  the  distance  aroimd  its  inner 
surface ;  sections  with  more  than  60  unsealed  cells,  exclusive  of  the 
row  adjacent  to  the  box ;  leaking,  injured,  or  patched-up  sections ; 
sections  weighing  less  than  ten  ounces. 

The  Colorado  Honey  Producers'  Association  on  December 
13, 1911,  adopted  a  set  of  grading  rules  which  are  well  adapted 
to  the  market  conditions  which  Colorado  beekeepers  meet. 
They  are  not  suitable  for  grading  all  comb-honey  because  the 
requirements  on  color,  weight  and  finish  are  not  sufficiently 
separated.    These  rules  have  recently  been  revised. 

In  the  grading  rules  of  the  National  Bee  Keepers'  Associa- 
tion the  weight  is  classed  in  three  divisions,  but,  since  the 
net-weight  amendment  is  in  force  (since  September  3,  1914) 
and  since  comb-honey  in  a  section  is  considered  a  package 
of  food,  these  divisions  are  no  longer  suitable.  It  is  now 
necessary  under  the  law  that  each  section  of  honey  which 


328 


Beekeeping 


enters  interstate  commerce  be  marked  with  the  net  weight. 
This  is  construed  to  mean  the  weight  exclusive  of  the  wood 
but  including  the  wax.  Sections  have  quite  commonly- 
been  called  ''one-pound  sections,"  but  unless  a  comb  is 
exceptionally  well  filled  it  does  not  weigh  a  full  pound.  Bee- 
keepers have  usually  sold  these  by  the  piece  but  the  con- 
suming public  has  known  little  of  the  actual  weights.  The 
name  ''one-pound  section"  is  incorrect  and  should  be 
dropped.  This  law  will  benefit  the  beekeepers  who  use 
full-size  sections  and  will  help  to  expose  the  few  who  have 
been  using  undersizes. 

In  grading  comb-honey  some  beekeepers  place  the  sec- 
tions directly  into  shipping  cases,  but  since  the  picture  of 
each  grade  is  a  mental  one  only,  it  is  perhaps  preferable 
to  make  separate  piles  of  each  grade  where  they  can  be  seen 
throughout  the  grading.  Of  course  when  similar  sections 
enough  to  fill  a  case  are  ready  they  may  be  cased,  marked 
and  prepared  for  shipment.  It  will  be  found  advantageous, 
especially  to  the  retailer,  to  make  smaller  sub-grades  to 
give  greater  uniformity  to  the  contents  of  each  case. 

Shipping  cases. 

The  case  for  shipping  comb-honey  which  is  most  com- 
monly used  is  one  holding  24  sections  in  one  tier  (Fig.  138), 
but  a  two-tier  case  is  preferred  by  many  western  beekeepers. 

Other  types  are  used 
for  certain  local  mar- 
kets. It  is  customary 
also  to  make  the 
shipping  cases  with 
glass  fronts  so  that  the 
case  may  be  used  for 
displaying  the  honey. 
A  shipping  case  of 
corrugated  paper  with- 
out glass  is  gaining  in 
popularity. 


Fig.     138. 


Shipping    cases    for    comb- 
honey. 


Marketing  the  Honey  Crop  329 

Glazed  sections. 

It  is  not  unusual  for  pieces  of  glass  to  be  fastened  to  each 
side  of  sections  by  means  of  tacks  or  tin  triangles  or  by- 
strips  of  paper  before  being  offered  for  sale,  thus  protecting 
the  honey  from  dust  and  insects.  Formerly  it  was  not  un- 
common to  sell  the  package  by  weight,  in  which  event  the 
glass  was  sold  at  a  considerable  profit.  The  amendment 
to  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act  requiring  that  each  package  of 
food  be  marked  with  its  net  weight  will  probably  injure  the 
market  for  glazed  sections. 

Use  of  cartons. 

The  modern  retail  market  deals  chiefly  in  package  goods 
and  the  purchaser  usually  sees  only  a  carton  or  case  and  not 
the  food  that  he  buys.  Similarly  comb-honey  is  now  fre- 
quently put  in  a  carton  and  this  plan  commends  itself  be- 
cause of  the  security  from  dust  and  insects.  The  cheap 
cartons  that  slip  over  filled  sections  are  not  so  efficient 
neither  are  they  so  attractive  as  those  that  may  be  com- 
pletely sealed.  Most  cartons  are  now  made  of  thin  card- 
board but  a  sealed  corrugated  paper  carton  would  be  more 
serviceable  in  the  delivery  of  the  honey  from  the  retailer. 
The  comments  made  on  labels  for  extracted-honey  may 
well  apply  to  the  printing  on  the  comb-honey  carton.  In- 
dividuality and  attractiveness  are  essential  in  making  an 
appeal  to  the  fancy  trade  and  the  carton  will  appeal  to 
the  consumer  as  a  more  sanitary  package  than  an  exposed 
section.  When  cartons  are  used,  the  corrugated  paper 
shipping  case  is  preferable  since  there  is  no  advantage  in  a 
glass  front. 

Shipping  comb-honey. 

The  fragile  comb  in  a  section  of  honey  carries  consider- 
able weight  as  compared  with  the  heavier  reinforced  combs 
in  the  brood-chamber  of  the  hive.  In  cool  weather,  when 
the  wax  becomes  brittle,  it  is  less  capable  of  withstanding 
jars  and  at  any  time  comb-honey  is  not  capable  of  with- 


330  Beekeeping 

standing  much  hard  usage.  Naturally  a  small  package 
like  a  single  shipping  case  is  easily  thrown  about  by  careless 
expressmen  and  consequently  it  is  safer  to  ship  in  larger 
packages.  For  this  reason  and  also  to  protect  the  wooden 
shipping  cases  from  dirt  and  to  prevent  the  breakage  of  the 
glass,  several  shipping  cases  are  usually  packed  together  in 
a  crate.  Comb-honey  should  be  shipped  to  its  final  destina- 
tion before  cold  weather.  For  car  load  shipments  it  is  safe 
to  pack  in  a  car  without  crates  since  the  shipping  cases  are 
not  handled  individually  en  route. 

PREPARATION    OF   BULK    COMB-HONEY    FOR   MARKET 

The  packing  of  bulk  comb-honey  does  not  differ  essentially 
from  that  for  extracted-honey  except  that  the  cans  or  bottles 
must  have  openings  sufficiently  large  to  admit  the  pieces  of 
comb. 

The  packing  of  the  small  pieces  of  cut-out  comb  has  been 
sufficiently  described  in  the  paragraph  in  which  they  were 
discussed. 

PREPARATION    OF   GRANULATED    HONEY    FOR   MARKET 

As  has  been  shown  previously,  some  honeys  granulate 
quickly  to  a  semi-solid  condition  and  some  beekeepers  have 
developed  a  market  for  it  in  this  form.  Alfalfa  honey  is 
exceptionally  fine  for  this  purpose.  The  honey  may  be 
poured  while  in  a  liquid  condition  into  special  paper  bags 
or  oyster  pails  and  allowed  to  granulate  before  being  sold, 
though  such  packages  are  somewhat  crude.  A  better 
method  is  to  allow  it  to  granulate  in  larger  vessels  (such  as 
5-gallon  square  cans)  after  which  it  is  removed  and  cut  into 
bricks  as  butter  is  cut.  It  is  then  wrapped  in  waxed  paper 
and  put  in  a  neat  carton.  Since  this  is  a  comparatively 
unknown  article  of  food  to  the  average  consumer,  its  source 
and  nature  should  be  stated  on  the  package.  Granulated 
honey  should  not  be  allowed  to  remain  on  store  shelves 
until  warm  weather,  for  the  crystals  may  dissolve,  causing 


Marketing  the  Honey  Crop  331 

considerable  loss  and  inconvenience.  The  market  for  such 
honey  is  not  well  developed  but  it  is  worthy  of  considerable 
attention  since  many  people  after  trying  this  honey  prefer 
it  to  liquid  honey. 

WORDING   OF   LABELS 

Beekeepers  are  often  at  a  loss  to  know  just  what  should 
be  put  on  labels  in  order  to  conform  with  the  various  pro- 
visions of  pure  food  laws.  In  the  case  of  the  net- weight 
amendment  of  the  Federal  Food  and  Drugs  Act,  the  require- 
ment is  definite,  that  the  net  weight  or  volume  shall  be  indi- 
cated. Since  bottles  vary  somewhat,  it  is  best  to  test  a 
number  to  find  the  minimum  and  then  have  on  the  label, 
''Net  weight  not  less  than —  oz."  or  "Minimum  weight  — 
oz."  Aside  from  this  there  is  no  difficulty.  If  the  label 
tells  the  truth  about  the  contents,  the  beekeeper  will  not  get 
into  trouble.  He  should  not  label  his  honey  "Pure  clover 
honey"  if  it  is  partly  sage  honey,  nor  should  he  attempt  to 
deceive  the  customer  by  labeling  it  "Clover  brand  honey" 
if  it  is  not  as  nearly  all  clover  honey  as  it  is  possible  to  get. 
Some  beekeepers  have  worried  over  the  fact  that  even  in 
the  purest  honey  there  is  possibly  a  little  nectar  from  some 
other  source.  If  this  causes  worry  it  may  be  entirely  avoided 
by  stating  the  exact  facts.  Furthermore  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  officials  who  enforce  these  laws  are  sensible 
men  and  a  slight  discrepancy  on  the  label  would  probably 
not  be  considered  a  violation  of  the  law,  provided  there  is 
evidently  no  intent  of  misrepresentation.  The  various  pure 
food  laws  are  designed  to  protect  the  purchaser  against 
fraud  and  the  honest  producer  against  dishonest  competi- 
tion. It  may  perhaps  be  considered  as  ingratitude,  there- 
fore, if  a  beekeeper  complains  at  the  necessity  of  telling  the 
exact  truth  on  his  label.  Beekeepers  are  almost  unani- 
mously opposed  to  the  adulteration  of  honey  and  should 
do  everything  possible  to  aid  in  the  enforcement  of  these 
laws. 


332  Beekeeping 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE  HOME   MARKET 

Too  many  beekeepers  ship  their  honey  as  soon  as  it  is 
marketable  to  the  chief  honey  markets.  While  there  is 
demand  in  the  wholesale  markets  under  normal  market 
conditions  for  all  the  honey  that  is  shipped  in,  there  are  many 
beekeepers  who  could  dispose  of  their  own  crops  and  even 
buy  considerable  honey  from  other  beekeepers  to  sell  in  the 
local  markets.  Of  course,  the  retail  price  should  be  con- 
siderably more  than  the  wholesale  price,  and  if  the  beekeeper 
does  not  have  other  work  that  brings  him  more  than  the 
retail  profit  he  may  well  turn  his  attention  to  the  develop- 
ment of  his  home  market.  He  will  probably  find  that  his 
home  town  consumes  little  honey  until  he  undertakes  to 
advertise  his  products,  but  the  experience  of  those  who  have 
tried  it  is  that  the  per  capita  consumption  of  honey  is  easily 
increased  to  many  times  what  it  was  formerly.  Individual 
cases  of  success  could  easily  be  enumerated.  If  the  bee- 
keeper is  in  a  small  town  it  is  probably  known  to  many  of 
the  inhabitants  that  he  keeps  bees  and  in  a  larger  town  or 
city  he  can  easily  let  this  be  known  without  much  cost  for 
advertising.  The  consumer  will  have  confidence  in  the 
purity  of  the  honey  if  it  is  bought  directly  from  the  producer, 
and  if  the  beekeeper  will  go  from  house  to  house  letting  the 
housewives  sample  his  honey,  he  will  not  only  sell  hundreds 
of  pounds  at  a  better  price  than  the  wholesale  price  but  will 
provide  a  good  food  as  a  substitute  for  the  cheap  jams  and 
syrups  so  much  used. 

To  stimulate  trade  and  create  public  comment,  no  better 
advertisement  can  be  obtained  than  an  observatory  hive 
filled  with  bees.  When  such  a  hive  is  placed  in  a  store 
window,  the  sidewalk  is  often  blocked  with  the  curious. 
Interest  can  be  increased  by  giving  an  exhibition  of  handling 
bees  or  of  extracting  honey ;  the  crowd  will  grow  and  people 
who  have  not  tasted  honey  for  years  will  remember  that 
they  are  fond  of  it  and  will  buy  some.  A  peculiarity  of  honey 
is  that  it  is  usually  easier  to  sell  the  second  bottle  or  section 


Marketing  the  Honey  Crop  333 

than  it  is  the  first.  The  ingenious  beekeeper  will  think  of  a 
dozen  ways  to  use  his  bees  or  his  commonest  manipulations 
as  advertising  matter  and  he  will  probably  be  surprised  not 
only  at  the  ignorance  but  also  at  the  interest  of  the  public 
concerning  anything  pertaining  to  bees.  Another  fruitful 
field  is  found  in  making  exhibits  at  fairs. 

In  deciding  the  price  of  his  product  either  at  wholesale 
or  retail,  the  beekeeper  should  consult  the  crop  reports. 
The  bee  journals  give  valuable  information  on  this  subject, 
and  in  1914  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
through  the  Bureau  of  Crop  Estimates  began  to  furnish 
crop  reports  on  honey.  In  Ontario  the  Beekeepers'  Asso- 
ciation furnishes  its  members  with  this  information. 


CO-OPERATIVE   SELLING 

In  discussing  the  sale  of  honey,  mention  should  be  made 
of  co-operative  selling.  The  best  example  of  this  to  be 
found  in  the  beekeeping  industry  in  the  United  States  is 
the  Colorado  Honey  Producers'  Association,  which  for 
several  years  has  successfully  looked  after  the  interests  of  its 
members  in  the  purchase  of  supplies  and  in  the  sale  of  honey. 
This  organization  is  similar  in  nature  to  the  agricultural 
co-operative  organizations  found  in  Europe  and  parts  of 
the  United  States.  Beekeepers  who  have  similar  honey  and 
who  are  so  situated  as  to  be  unable  to  develop  home  markets 
should  consider  the  possibilities  of  this  method  of  selling  at 
wholesale. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

THE  PRODUCTION  AND  CARE  OF  BEESWAX 

Beeswax  was  formerly  an  important  part  of  the  products 
of  the  beekeeper  for,  at  the  close  of  the  season,  certain  colo- 
nies were  chosen  to  be  killed  after  which  the  honey  and  wax 
were  removed.  With  the  introduction  of  modern  methods, 
honey-production  increased,  but  there  was  less  beeswax 
since  the  combs  are  not  destroyed,  except  as  they  are  acci- 
dentally broken.  In  spite  of  this  entire  change  of  policy 
on  the  part  of  the  beekeeper,  beeswax  is  a  part  of  the  product 
of  the  apiary  which  should  not  be  neglected.  Cappings 
from  extracting,  pieces  of  comb  built  in  parts  of  the  hive 
where  frames  have  accidentally  not  been  supplied,  burr  and 
brace  combs  and  combs  accidentally  broken  in  extracting 
may  be  mentioned  as  sources  which  in  the  aggregate  furnish 
the  beekeeper  with  a  considerable  amount  of  wax,  while 
occasionally  the  combs  of  diseased  colonies  still  further  in- 
crease the  supply.  The  preparation  of  this  wax  for  market 
often  involves  considerable  labor  and  the  beekeeper  too  often 
neglects  it  on  that  account.  However,  if  pieces  of  comb 
are  carefully  preserved  from  wax-moth  larvae,  they  may  be 
kept  until  there  is  an  accumulation  sufficient  to  justify  the 
necessary  expenditure  of  time  or  combs  may  now  be  sent 
to  central  stations  or  dealers  for  rendering. 

Rendering  the  wax. 

Beeswax  is  ordinarily  removed  from  the  combs  by  heat. 
Cappings  from  extracting  and  new  combs  may  be  melted 
up  and  the  wax  allowed  to  harden  in  a  cake  since  these  con- 
tain little  or  no  foreign  matter.     If  any  dirt  is  present,  it 

334 


The  Production  and  Care  of  Beeswax         335 


Fig.  139.  —  Double  boiler  for  melting  combs. 


will  settle  at  the  bottom  in  cooling  and  ma}^  be  cut  from  the 

cake.     A  common  method  for  melting  combs  and  pieces  of 

wax  is  by  the  use  of  the  solar  wax  extractor,  the  combs  being 

put  in  a  box  covered  with  glass  and  the  heat  of  the  sun, 

being  confined  by  the  glass,  melts  the  wax,  which  runs  into 

a  lower  compartment  where  it  hardens.     In  Hawaii,  the 

beekeepers  have  unusually  large  solar    extractors  to  melt 

their  cappings  as 

well    as    other 

pieces    of    comb. 

A    more   rapid 

method  is  to  place 

the    combs    in    a 

double  boiler  (Fig. 

139),    the    combs 

being  either  hung 

on  cross  supports 

or    thrown    on    a 

screen   (like   that 

in  an  uncapping  tank)  and  as  the  wax  melts  it  runs  out  a 

gate  provided  for  the  purpose.     A  less  efficient  method  is 

to  boil  combs  in  water  and  skim  off  the  wax.     Doctor  Miller 

finds  a  dripping  pan  in  the  oven  of   the  kitchen  stove  a 

good  substitute  for  a  solar  extractor  in  the  winter. 

Wax  presses. 

These  methods  are  satisfactory  for  clean  combs,  free 
from  pollen,  cocoons  and  other  substances,  but  in  the  case 
of  old  combs  much  of  the  wax  adheres  to  the  cocoons 
and  is  not  liberated.  To  render  old  combs  they  should  (if 
the  weather  is  cold)  be  broken  up  and  then  soaked  in  water 
after  which  they  should  be  put  into  a  sack,  heated  and  pressed 
under  strong  pressure  while  hot.  In  this  way  most  of  the 
wax  is  removed  from  the  cocoons.  There  are  three  types 
of  press  in  common  use.  In  the  steam  heated  press  the 
mass  of  comb  is  kept  hot  by  steam  generated  below  dur- 
ing the  process  of  pressing  out  the  wax,  which  drops  down 


336 


Beekeeping 


and  is  drained  off.  In  the  hot  water  press  (Fig.  140),  the 
whole  process  takes  place  under  hot  water,  the  liberated 
wax  rising  to  the  top  where  it  is  removed.  A  method  in 
common  use  is  to  melt  up  the  combs  in  a  boiler  and  dip  off 
the  melted  mass  into  a  burlap  bag  which  is  then  subjected 
to  pressure,  no  additional  heat  being  supplied.  Small  presses 
of  these  types  may  be  purchased  from  dealers  in  supplies 
but  if  there  is  much  wax  to  be  rendered,  larger  machines  of 

the  hot  water  type 
should  be  made  to 
which  more  pressure 
may  be  applied.  In 
any  type  of  press  it  is 
desirable  to  press  the 
bag  of  comb  thor- 
oughly and  then  loosen 
it  to  allow  the  combs 
to  be  filled  with  water 
before  pressing  again. 
This  may  be  repeated 
several  times  until  no 
more  wax  is  liberated. 
It  is  advised  that 
soft  water  be  used 
in  rendering  combs. 
The  residue  after  the  removal  of  the  wax  is  commonly 
known  among  beekeepers  as  "slumgum"  and  since  bee- 
keepers seem  to  have  a  vocabulary  of  their  own  and  since 
there  is  no  other  name  for  this  substance  we  must  perforce 
accept  it.  In  most  cases,  slumgum  contains  a  considerable 
amount  of  beeswax,  some  samples  supposed  to  be  practi- 
cally free  being  found  on  analysis  to  contain  forty  per  cent 
beeswax.  Cocoons  entirely  free  from  beeswax  are. brown- 
ish-gray and  cannot  be  pressed  into  a  hard  cake.  If  then 
the  slumgum  after  removal  from  the  press  forms  a  black 
hard  mass,  the  beekeeper  may  rest  assured  that  it  still  con- 
tains wax.     This  may  be  shown  quickly  by  putting  some  in 


Fig.   140.  —  Hot  water  (Hershiser)  wax  press. 


The  Production  and  Care  of  Beeswax         337 

the  fire,  where  it  burns  briskly.  It  is  almost  permissible 
to  believe  that  every  man  who  makes  a  wax  press  thinks 
that  no  other  wax  press  could  ever  equal  it  and  some  of  the 
most  powerful  and  elaborate  ones  that  have  been  demon- 
strated to  the  author  were  the  least  efficient. 

Removing  wax  by  dissolving. 

In  Europe,  the  wax  in  slumgum  is  sometimes  dissolved 
out  with  turpentine  or  some  other  light  oil  and  the  solvent 
is  then  regained  by  distillation,  but  there  is  no  record  of  this 
being  done  on  a  commercial  scale  in  America.  By  no  other 
means  can  all  the  wax  be  removed,  but  it  is  claimed  that 
this  ^'extracted  wax"  differs  slightly  both  physically  and 
chemically  from  wax  removed  by  melting.  If  a  solvent  is 
used  carbon  tetrachloride  would  probably  be  the  mqst 
satisfactory. 

Cleaning  wax. 

After  the  wax  is  extracted,  it  usually  contains  many  for- 
eign particles.  While  still  in  a  liquid  condition  the  wax 
should  be  placed  over  an  inch  or  more  of  water  in  a  vessel 
which  will  conserve  the  heat  so  that  the  wax  can  remain 
liquid  for  a  considerable  time.  If  a  heavy  wooden  box  is 
available  this  is  good,  but  even  better  results  may  be  accom- 
plished by  packing  a  thinner  vessel  in  a  box  filled  with  saw- 
dust. If  it  can  remain  liquid  for  twenty-four  hours  or  more 
the  results  are  best.  Just  before  hardening  (when  the  tem- 
perature is  just  above  the  melting  point  of  wax)  it  should 
be  carefully  dipped  off  from  the  top  into  vessels  to  cool. 
These  vessels  should  either  have  the  top  wider  than  the 
bottom  or  have  smooth  straight  sides  which  are  covered 
with  a  thin  layer  of  honey  just  before  the  cooling  wax  is 
poured  in.  Every  beekeeper  should  know  that  wax  and 
honey  never  mix.  The  particles  of  dirt  will  have  settled  to 
the  bottom  and  when  the  wax  appears  discolored  the  re- 
mainder may  be  left  to  harden  in  the  insulated  vessel.  The 
dirt  may  then  be  scraped  away  from  this  cake,  and  if  there 


338  Beekeeping 

is  much  wax  still  in  the  dirt  it  may  be  kept  to  put  in  the 
next  melting  and  the  dirt  will  gradually  be  eliminated. 

Extensive  dealers  in  wax  use  a  little  sulfuric  acid  to 
assist  in  cleaning  the  wax.  Manufacturers  of  comb-founda- 
tion usually  advise  against  this  practice  because  beekeepers 
often  use  too  much  acid.  A  proportion  of  not  more  than 
one  pint  to  forty  gallons  of  water  should  be  used,  this  water 
being  sufficient  for  the  melting  of  750  pounds  of  wax. 

Granulation  of  wax. 

In  rendering,  wax  may  be  formed  into  an  emulsion  due 
to  the  presence  of  gums  in  the  honey  which  adheres  to  the 
combs  and  on  hardening  this  resembles  a  thick  paste  of 
corn  meal.  Many  beekeepers  believe  that  this  is  pollen 
from  the  combs  and  throw  it  away.  It  is,  however,  almost 
solid  wax.  In  melting  up  combs  which  had  contained  honey- 
dew  on  one  occasion  the  author  found  the  whole  mass  of 
wax  in  this  condition  after  cooUng.  Such  granulated  wax 
(as  it  is  usually  called)  should  be  melted  slowly  by  dry 
heat  (not  in  water)  and  with  care  the  wax  may  be  saved. 
It  is  claimed  that  this  emulsion  is  less  common  when  sul- 
furic acid  is  used  in  clearing  and  Dadant  claims  that  it  is 
increased  by  excessive  heat.  The  important  fact  for  the 
beekeeper  is  that  this  is  not  pollen  and  should  be  saved. 

Bleaching  wax. 

The  bleaching  of  wax  is  rarely  done  by  the  beekeeper  and 
requires  little  mention  in  a  book  on  beekeeping.  It  is  inter- 
esting to  note,  however,  that  waxes  from  various  regions  vary 
greatly  in  bleaching,  some  of  the  darker  waxes  being  easily 
bleached  while  some  fighter  waxes  do  not  respond  to  this 
treatment.  Presumably  this  is  due  to  the  kind  of  honey 
and  pollen  available  to  the  bees  when  the  wax  was  secreted. 
Wax  dealers  claim  that  wax  from  some  of  the  southern 
States  is  the  best  obtainable  in  the  United  States  for  bleach- 
ing. Usually  wax  is  cut  into  thin  ribbons  and  exposed  to 
sunfight,  but  chemicals  are  sometimes  used  in  bleaching. 


The  Production  and  Care  of  Beeswax         339 

White  (bleached)  wax  differs  physically  and  chemically  from 
yellow  wax. 

Adulteration  of  wax. 

Fortunately  this  also  is  a  subject  in  which  beekeepers 
take  no  interest,  but  nevertheless  beeswax  is  frequently 
adulterated  by  the  addition  of  mineral  waxes,  wax  from  other 
insects  or  tallow  or  by  cruder  methods,  such  as  the  addition 
of  gypsum,  starch  or  flour.  The  detection  of  these  adul- 
terations (except  the  cruder  ones)  must  usually  be  left  to 
the  chemist,  but  beekeepers  rely  on  what  is  known  as  the 
"break  test."  If  a  cake  of  pure  wax  is  cracked  it  presents 
a  granular  surface  which  is  not  seen  in  wax  with  even  a 
small  percentage  of  paraffin.  The  determination  of  the 
specific  gravity  is  also  useful  to  the  beekeeper  in  confirming 
his  suspicions  of  a  lot  of  wax. 

Preparation  of  wax  for  market. 

Usually  the  beekeeper  ships  his  cakes  of  wax  in  bags  or 
barrels  to  the  wax  dealer  and  most  commonly  to  the  manu- 
facturer of  comb-foundation.  To  see  a  great  pile  of  these 
cakes  as  they  come  in  is  sufficient  to  convince  one  that  bee- 
keepers are  not  as  a  rule  sufficiently  careful  in  cleaning  their 
wax.  One  large  company  of  beekeepers  puts  up  wax  in 
cakes  just  large  enough  to  go  into  a  shipping  case  such  as  is 
used  in  shipping  two  5-gallon  square  cans  of  extracted- 
honey.  Each  cake  is  wrapped  in  paper  and  there  is  not  a 
particle  of  dirt  on  the  bottom  of  the  cake.  This  firm  re- 
ceives an  equivalent  of  about  two  cents  a  pound  more  than 
beekeepers  similarly  located  and  in  fact  has  received  over 
five  cents  a  pound  more  than  beekeepers  through  whose 
territory  the  wax  passes  on  its  way  to  market.  The  fact 
that  they  produce  several  thousand  pounds  of  wax  a  year 
makes  this  a  considerable  item  and  it  may  not  be  so  well 
worth  while  for  a  beekeeper  with  only  a  little  wax  to  ship 
at  one  time. 


340  Beekeeping 

Special  production  of  wax. 

In  the  previous  discussion  it  is  assumed  that  beeswax 
is  always  a  by-product  of  the  apiary,  but  the  manipulation 
of  bees  for  the  production  of  wax  is  a  phase  of  beekeeping 
which  might  well  be  tried  in  some  tropical  or  sub-tropical 
regions.  If  the  honey  is  of  low  grade  and  the  cost  of  trans- 
portation is  excessive,  this  should  be  tried.  In  Hawaii  the 
author  advised  ^  that  by  special  manipulations  the  honey- 
dew  honey  be  converted  into  wax  and  this  has  been  tried. 
While  the  manipulation  is  reported  not  materially  to  have 
reduced  the  output  of  honey-dew  honey  it  did  increase  the 
wax  considerably.  In  Porto  Rico  and  in  other  tropical 
countries  there  are  good  locations  from  which  the  transpor- 
tation of  honey  is  almost  impossible  and  the  author  advised  ^ 
that  this  be  tested  out  in  Porto  Rico.  There  are  records 
in  bee  journals  of  this  being  done  with  success  in  such  lo- 
calities but  details  are  lacking  so  that  to  the  present  the  sub- 
ject is  one  chiefly  of  speculation.  It  is  usually  believed 
that  from  seven  to  twenty  pounds  of  honey  are  consumed 
in  the  building  of  one  pound  of  comb  and  in  the  literature 
the  preference  is  given  to  the  higher  estimates.  However, 
bees  appear  to  build  comb  much  more  quickly  than  usual 
under  some  conditions,  and  this  suggests  that  because  of 
some  physiological  condition  the  building  of  comb  is  more 
economical.  Careful  work  as  to  the  cost  of  wax  in  terms  of 
honey  is  greatly  needed,  as  well  as  tests  as  to  the  possibility 
of  producing  wax  where  honey  is  worth  only  about  three  cents 
a  pound  at  the  apiary. 

Uses  of  beeswax. 

The  only  way  in  which  the  beekeeper  utilizes  beeswax 
to  any  extent  in  his  work  is  in  the  form  of  comb-foundation. 
This  is  made  of  thin  sheets  of  pure  beeswax  embossed  with 

1  Phillips,  E.  F.,  1909.  A  brief  survey  of  Hawaiian  beekeeping,  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agric.  Bureau  of  Entomology,  Bui.  75,  Pt.  V. 

«  Phillips,  E.  F.,  1914.  Porto  Rican  beekeeping.  Bui.  15,  P.  R.  Agric. 
Exp.  Station. 


The  Production  and  Care  of  Beeswax         341 

the  bases  of  cells  of  the  comb.  It  is  supposed  that  Mehring 
in  1857  made  the  first  comb-foundation  and  during  the  next 
twenty  years  some  progress  was  made,  but  not  until  Root 
(1876)  made  a  machine  by  means  of  which  foundation  is 
made  between  rollers  was  much  advance  made.  Repeated 
and  continuous  efforts  to  improve  the  product  have  led  to 
great  advance  in  the  reUability  of  the  manufactured  founda- 
tion and  comb-foundation  is  now  used  by  all  progressive 
beekeepers.  Better  results  are  obtained  if  the  wax  is  sheeted 
and  then  put  between  the  rollers  under  considerable  pressure, 
and  as  a  result  the  home-made  article  is  less  dependable 
than  that  made  in  well-equipped  factories.  Over  500,000 
pounds  of  beeswax  is  annually  made  into  comb-foundation 
in  the  United  States.  The  Rietsche  press  is  used  in  Europe 
but  rarely  in  America.  Two  concrete  or  plaster  of  Paris 
molds  are  made  so  that  if  hot  wax  is  poured  on  one  and  the 
other  applied  the  wax  is  molded  to  foundation.  This 
foundation  is  soft,  breaks  easily  and  is  more  wasteful  of  wax 
than  that  made  on  rolls. 

As  was  stated  earlier,  comb-foundation  is  made  of  pure 
wax.  It  is  reported  that  in  Europe  it  is  sometimes  adul- 
terated by  adding  paraffin  or  cerasin,  but  it  is  claimed  that 
when  this  is  done  the  foundation  is  not  easily  accepted  by 
the  bees  and  sags  badly  after  the  comb  is  built.  It  may  be 
stated  that  the  manufacturers  of  comb-foundation  in  this 
country  do  not  practice  this  deception  and  the  author  has 
personal  knowledge  of  several  cases  in  which  these  manu- 
facturers have  rejected  shipments  of  adulterated  wax  even 
when  offered  at  a  very  low  price.  This  should  give  the  Ameri- 
can beekeeper  confidence  in  the  marketed  product. 

In  addition  to  the  use  of  beeswax  in  beekeeping  it  has 
many  uses  in  the  arts,  sciences  and  industries.  It  is  ex- 
tensively used  in  making  candles,  which  are  not  molded  as 
are  tallow  candles  but  are  made  by  pouring,  drawing  or 
dipping.  Beeswax  candles  are  used  chiefly  in  church  cere- 
monies. It  is  also  used  for  making  furniture  and  leather 
polishes,  sealing  and  grafting  waxes  and  in  making  certain 


342  Beekeeping 

varnishes.  It  is  also  used  in  electrical  work  as  an  insulation 
and  to  wax  threads,  especially  in  sewing  leathers.  Numer- 
ous salves  and  cosmetics  in  which  beeswax  is  an  ingredient 
are  recommended  in  books  on  beekeeping,  but  it  is  surely 
safer  to  take  the  advice  of  a  physician  on  these  matters. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  American  beekeepers  produce 
relatively  little  beeswax  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  the 
beekeeping  industry,  it  is  necessary  to  import  a  considerable 
amount  from  other  countries  to  supply  the  heavy  demands. 
This  amounts  to  about  700,000  pounds  annually. 


CHAPTER  XX 

THE  CARE  OF  BEES  IN  WINTER 

For  honeybees  to  survive  the  winter  season  in  cold  cli- 
mates it  is  necessary  that  they  be  able  to  generate  consider- 
able heat.  They  cannot  hibernate  as  do  solitary  insects 
and  they  cannot  migrate  to  warmer  climates.  The  only 
method  open  to  them  is,  therefore,  the  storage  of  food  and 
the  production  -  and  conservation  of  heat  when  the  outer 
temperature  falls  below  the  critical  temperature,  57°  F. 
The  behavior  of  the  cluster  during  the  winter  season  has 
been  discussed  in  an  earlier  chapter  (p.  88). 

Losses  in  winter. 

That  the  winter  problem  warrants  considerable  investi- 
gation and  study  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  American  bee- 
keepers annually  experience  an  average  loss  of  probably 
ten  per  cent  of  their  colonies.  The  value  of  these  amounts 
to  several  million  dollars  and  this  loss  and  the  weakening 
of  colonies  serve  further  to  discourage  the  beekeeper  and  to 
reduce  his  income  the  following  year.  In  certain  years 
the  losses  have  been  excessive.  The  season  of  1884-85 
stands  out  in  the  history  of  American  beekeeping  as  one  of 
terrible  devastation.  During  the  winter  of  1903-04  prob- 
ably seventy  percent  of  the  bees  in  New  England  died  while 
in  1909-10  the  loss  was  probably  fifty  per  cent  in  the  north- 
eastern United  States.  The  winter  of  1911-12  was  also 
one  of  heavy  mortality,  the  actual  death  of  colonies  costing 
the  beekeepers  in  the  eastern  United  States  millions  of  dol- 
lars. The  problem  is  therefore  one  of  vital  interest  to  the 
beekeeper  and  is  one  of  the  most  important  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  industry. 

343 


344  Beekeeping 

Object  of  winter  protection. 

In  providing  extra  protection  to  the  colonies  outdoors 
or  in  placing  them  in  special  cellars,  the  object  of  the  bee- 
keeper is  to  reduce  the  expenditure  of  energy  on  the  part 
of  the  bees.  As  was  shown  earher  (p.  128),  a  worker  bee 
may  for  all  practical  considerations  be  considered  as  capable 
of  only  a  certain  amount  of  work  and  when  this  work  is 
performed  the  bee  dies.  Consequently  if  too  much  energy 
is  expended  during  the  winter  the  entire  colony  may  die, 
or  if  some  bees  still  live  they  are  unable  to  do  the  work  re- 
quired of  them  in  the  spring.  To  conserve  the  energy  to 
the  fullest  extent  there  are  numerous  external  factors  which 
must  be  considered  by  the  beekeeper  in  planning  for  the 
winter.    , 

Requirements  for  successful  wintering. 

Before  discussing  the  methods  advocated  for  the  care  of 
bees  in  winter,  it  will  be  well  to  name  the  factors  which  are 
essential  to  the  activities  of  bees  during  this  season.  First 
of  all,  to  winter  well,  a  colony  must  be  large  enough  to  gen- 
erate heat  and  to  conserve  it  economically.  It  should 
also  contain  a  great  number  of  young  bees,  full  of  vitality 
and  capable  of  prolonged  heat  production  should  this  be- 
come necessary.  To  accomplish  these  requirements  breed- 
ing should  be  prolonged  in  the  fall.  The  colony  should 
also  have  a  good  queen  capable  of  keeping  up  egg-laying 
rather  late  and  then  able  to  permit  the  colony  to  build  up 
rapidly  to  full  strength  the  following  spring. 

Winter  stores. 

The  colony  should  be  provided  with  an  abundance  of 
food  of  good  quality.  No' food  better  than  good  honey  has 
ever  been  found  for  bees  and  the  safest  plan  is  to  leave  enough 
in  the  hives  to  supply  the  bees  without  feeding.  Not  all 
honeys  are  equally  good  and  in  general  it  is  safe  to  consider 
the  lighter  honeys  preferable.  The  fall  honeys  are  not 
considered  as  good  as  those  obtained  earher.     There  are 


The  Care  of  Bees  in  Winter  345 

exceptions  to  these  statements,  however,  since  buckwheat 
honey  is  satisfactory.  Most  honeys  from  tree  sources  are 
not  so  good  as  those  from  smaller  plants  because  of  the  higher 
gum  content.  Honey-dew  honey  should  not  be  left  in  the 
hives  for  winter  stores,  but  if  some  is  present  the  danger  may 
be  reduced  by  feeding  ten  pounds  or  more  of  sugar  syrup 
after  brood-rearing  ceases.  In  case  the  colony  is  found  to 
be  short  of  stores  a  syrup  made  of  granulated  sugar  may  be 
fed.  If  the  feeding  is  done  early,  one  part  of  sugar  to  one 
part  of  water  (by  measure)  is  a  proper  proportion,  but  for 
later  feeding  one  part  of  water  to  two  and  one-half  parts  of 
sugar  is  preferable.  To  the  latter  syrup,  add  one  teaspoonful 
of  tartaric  acid  to  fifteen  or  twenty  pounds  of  sugar  while 
it  is  being  heated  to  change  the  cane  sugar  to  invert  sugar. 
Heating  should  be  continued  until  every  crystal  is  dissolved. 
Late  feeding  should  be  done  rapidly.  The  use  of  candy 
for  colonies  which  exhaust  their  stores  in  winter  should  be 
considered  as  an  emergency  treatment  and  nothing  but 
granulated  sugar  should  be  used  in  making  the  candy.  Be- 
fore cold  weather  arrives  each  colony  to  be  wintered  out  of 
doors  should  have  in  the  combs  thirty  poimds  of  honey  and 
preferably  more. 

Cause  and  effects  of  humidity  in  the  hive. 

In  winter,  especially  in  a  cold  or  poorly  ventilated  cellar, 
the  atmosphere  in  the  hive  may  become  so  laden  with 
water  vapor  that  water  will  condense  on  the  cover,  combs 
and  sides  of  the  hive,  drop  to  the  bottom  board  and  even 
run  out  the  entrance.  The  source  of  this  moisture  is,  of 
course,  the  food  of  the  bees.  Honey  is  a  carbohydrate,  and 
when  consumed  ultimately  becomes  carbon  dioxid  and  water, 
one  gallon  of  honey  producing  approximately  one  gallon 
of  water.  Unless  the  moisture  is  carried  off  in  the  form  of 
vapor  by  convection  currents  in  the  atmosphere,  it  will 
be  condensed  in  the  hive,  for  bees  do  not  ventilate  the  hive 
by  fanning  when  clustered. 

The  condensation  of  water  may  be  prevented  by  raising 


346  Beekeeping 

the  temperature,  by  abundant  ventilation  or  by  artificial 
drying,  as  by  the  use  of  unslaked  lime.  These  methods 
may  be  appUed  in  the  bee  cellar.  It  should  be  recalled  that 
an  increase  in  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  increases 
the  capacity  of  the  atmosphere  for  water  vapor  and  thereby 
decreases  the  relative  humidity.^ 

Bees  need  water  in  winter  but  they  get  enough  in  their 
food  provided  the  temperature  does  not  get  so  high  that 
the  relative  humidity  of  the  outer  air  is  too  low.  The 
optimum  relative  humidity  has  not  been  determined  and, 
in  fact,  virtually  no  observations  have  been  made  on  the 
relative  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  of  the  hive  or  bee  cellar. 
Probably  the  great  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the  best  tempera- 
ture for  the  bee  cellar  is  due  to  the  unrecorded  differences 
in  the  relative  humidity  of  the  various  cellars  observed. 

Effects  of  ventilation. 

Ventilation  of  the  hive  and  of  the  bee  cellar  depends  upon 
the  currents  of  air  caused  by  the  differences  in  temperature 
in  two  points,  since  bees  do  not  mechanically  ventilate 
the  hive  in  winter.  The  movements  of  air  serve  not  only 
to  remove  carbon  dioxid  and  bring  in  oxygen  but,  probably 
more  important,  they  carry  out  the  surplus  water  vapor. 
Abundant  ventilation  is  beneficial  and  becomes  harmful 
only  if  the  temperature  is  too  greatly  reduced  thereby.  It 
has  been  determined  that  bees  survive  in  an  atmosphere 
which  contains  an  unusually  high  percentage  of  carbon  dioxid 
but  it  is  not  wise  to  err  on  that  side. 

Source  of  heat  and  effects  of  changes  of  temperature. 

It  has  been  determined  by  Demuth  and  the  author  ^  that 
bees  generate  heat  in  winter  by  muscular  activity  and  that 

1  The  beekeeper  interested  in  cellar  wintering  will  do  well  to  consult 
Marvin,  1912,  Psychrometric  tables.  Weather  Bureau  Publication  235 
and  other  works  dealing  with  the  relation  of  relative  humidity  to  tempera- 
ture. 

*  Phillips  and  Demuth,  1914.  The  temperature  of  the  honey  bee  cluster 
in  winter.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agric,  Bulletin  93. 


The  Care  of  Bees  in  Winter  347 

undisturbed  broodless  bees  generate  virtually  no  heat 
between  57°  and  69°  F.  (Fig.  141).  When  the  temperature 
of  the  air  about  the  bees  falls  below  57°  the  bees  form  a 
cluster  and  raise  the  temperature,  often  almost  to  blood 
heat.  It  follows  that  when  the  temperature  of  the  bees 
is  above  57°  and  below  69°  F.  they  do  less  work  than  at 
other  temperatures  and  their  energies  are  thereby  conserved. 
However,  to  raise  the  outer  temperature  to  57°  F.  often  so 
reduces  the  relative  humidity  of  the  surrounding  air  as  to 
create  excitement  in  the  cluster  and  thereby  to  destroy  the 
desirable  condition.  Other  factors  not  yet  worked  out 
probably  have  a  bearing  on  this  problem.  The  majority 
of  beekeepers  consider  40°  to  45°  F.  as  the  best  cellar  tem- 
perature, but  it  is  clear  that  the  temperature  can  usually 
be  raised  to  at  least  50°  F.  with  beneficial  results.  Humidity 
and  ventilation  are  so  intimately  connected  with  tempera- 
ture that  one  cannot  be  investigated  separate  from  the 
others. 

Disturbance, 

Any  factor  which  induces  undue  activity  in  the  winter 
must  be  considered  as  a  disturbing  factor.  For  example, 
low  temperature,  improper  humidity,  poor  food  or  insuffi- 
cient ventilation  create  an  undue  excitement  which  should 
be  avoided.  Disturbance  is  usually  considered,  however,  as 
applying  to  manipulation  of  the  colony  or  to  jarring  while 
the  colony  is  clustered.  Any  such  circumstance  causes  the 
colony  to  raise  the  temperature,  which  may  not  again  become 
normal  for  many  hours.  All  manipulation  or  handhng  is 
to  be  avoided,  therefore,  especially  in  cold  weather  or  in 
the  cellar.  Colonies  sometimes  begin  brood-rearing  in 
winter,  usually  induced  by  some  improper  outside  condi- 
tion. The  care  of  the  brood  then  causes  a  high  temperature 
and  corresponding  excessive  activity  which  decimates  the 
colony.  Brood-rearing  should  so  far  as  possible  be  avoided 
until  the  bees  can  fly  freely. 

In  this  connection  it  will  be  recalled  that  breeding  often 


348 


Beekeeping 


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The  Care  of  Bees  in  Winter  349 

begins  in  colonies  mntered  out  of  doors  during  the  coldest 
weather.  The  previously  mentioned  results  on  colony  tem- 
peratures lend  support  to  the  theory  that  excessive  outside 
cold  causes  the  raising  of  the  temperature  of  the  cluster  to 
the  point  where  egg-laying  is  possible  and  that  the  beginning 
of  breeding  is  a  response  to  the  stimulus  of  external  cold. 
Similarly,  colonies  wintered  in  the  cellar  may  have  their 
temperature  raised  by  reason  of  an  undue  accumulation  of 
feces  and  breeding  may  be  begun.  If  these  theories  are 
tenable,  winter  breeding  is  to  be  considered  as  indicative  of 
poor  wintering  and  there  is  abundant  evidence  that  the  best 
results  are  obtained  where  no  breeding  takes  place  until  the 
bees  fly  freely. 


METHODS   OF  WINTERING   BEES 

There  are  two  main  plans  of  wintering  bees  and  it  is  often 
difficult  for  the  beekeeper  to  decide  which  he  should  adopt. 
They  may  be  left  on  their  summer  stands  (Fig.  142)  where 
they  are  free  to  fly  on  warm  days  or  they  may  be  placed  in  a 
cellar  or  special  repository  as  a  protection  against  extremes 
of  temperature,  in  which  event  they  normally  have  no  oppor- 
tunity to  fly  and  to  void  their  feces  until  placed  again  in 
their  summer  locations.  C.  C.  Miller,  in  an  excellent  article  ^ 
on  cellar  wintering,  concludes  that  in  general  up  to  40° 
latitude  it  is  better  to  winter  outside,  and  north  of  that  it  is 
questionable.  However,  he  also  points  out  the  fact  that 
latitude  or  even  isothermal  fines  cannot  alone  determine 
this.  Wind  velocity  and  constancy  and  the  facilities  of  the 
beekeeper  are  important  considerations.  There  seems  to 
be  a  growing  sentiment  among  the  beekeepers  to  prefer 
to  winter  outdoors,  but  this  should  probably  be  considered 
chiefly  as  indicating  a  lack  of  information  concerning  the 
methods  of  getting  optimum  conditions  in  the  cellar. 

1  Miller,  C.  C,  1913.  Some  things  about  cellar-wintering.  American 
Bee  Journal,  LIII,  pp.  271-273,  310-312. 


350 


Beekeeping 


Outdoor  wintering. 

In  warm  situations,  bees  may  be  left  outside  all  winter 
with  no  added  protection,  for  they  are  often  able  to  with- 
stand great  hardship  and  may  even  survive  zero  weather 
in  a  single- walled  hive.  However,  if  the  energy  of  the  colony 
is  to  be  properly  conserved,  they  should  not  be  called  upon 
to  endure  this.  Beekeepers  are  coming  to  the  view  that 
abundant  packing  is  desirable  and  the  tendency  seems  to  be 


Fig.   142.  —  An  apiary  in  winter. 

to  use  more  than  was  formerly  thought  necessary.  Pack- 
ing serves  to  prevent  the  loss  of  heat  generated  by  the  bees 
and  thereby  materially  lessens  the  muscular  activity  neces- 
sary. Just  as  it  is  practically  impossible  to  leave  too  much 
honey  in  a  hive  for  winter,  so  it  has  never  been  observed  that 
a  colony  is  too  thoroughly  packed. 

A  commendable  plan,  which  has  been  in  use  for  many 
years,  is  to  place  four  colonies  close  together  in  a  box,  two 
facing  east  and  two  facing  west,  leaving  room  for  four  to 
six  inches  of  planer  shavings  or  dry  leaves  on  all  sides  and 
perhaps  a  foot  on  top.     Sawdust  is  less  desirable  than  fine 


The  Care  of  Bees  in  Winter  351 

shavings  because  it  holds  water  and  thereby  becomes  a 
poorer  non-conductor.  Tunnels  through  the  packing  pro- 
vide entrances  to  the  hives  and  the  roof  should  be  water 
tight  to  prevent  the  packing  from  becoming  wet  from  rain 
or  snow.  This  method  of  packing  is  used  with  excellent 
results  in  many  northern  apiaries  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  Packing  may  also  be  applied  to  each  colony  (Fig. 
142)  or  to  a  row  of  hives  in  a  variety  of  ways  to  suit  the 
convenience  of  the  beekeeper. 

To  secure  the  most  favorable  conditions,  each  strong  col- 
ony may  be  given  two  hive-bodies  well  supplied  with  stores 
and  then  if  four  colonies  are  packed  together  in  a  large  box 
as  described  above  we  have  as  nearly  ideal  conditions  as 
may  be  obtained  in  the  open.  The  beekeeper  may  rest 
assured  that  the  labor  involved  in  thoroughly  packing  his 
colonies  and  in  furnishing  abundant  stores  will  be  repaid 
many  fold. 

Colonies  wintered  outdoors  should  be  provided  with  pack- 
ing early.  While  the  temperatures  of  autumn  nights  are 
not  so  low  as  to  endanger  the  bees,  still  the  heat  which  must 
be  generated  in  an  unpacked  hive  is  an  unnecessary  drain 
on  the  vitality  and  stores  of  the  colony  and  for  the  average 
northern  apiary  it  is  desirable  that  the  colonies  be  packed 
early  in  October.  Similarly,  the  packing  should  not  be 
removed  too  early.  When  frequent  examinations  of  the 
colony  become  necessary,  the  temporary  packing  around  the 
hives  becomes  bothersome,  but  it  is  best  to  leave  it  on  so 
long  as  it  does  not  interfere  with  the  work  of  the  apiary. 
Where  heavy  outside  packing  is  needed,  the  packing  may 
usually  be  kept  on  until  some  time  in  May. 

To  reduce  convection  currents  a  tall  hive  is  to  be  preferred 
in  winter.  For  summer  manipulations  the  majority  of 
American  beekeepers  prefer  a  hive  not  deeper  than  the 
Langstroth,  which  is  rather  shallow  for  best  results  in  winter. 
This  may  be  overcome  by  giving  each  strong  colony  two 
hive-bodies,  the  top  one  being  well  filled  with  stores.  If 
such  a  hive  is  well  packed  it  is  highly  satisfactory. 


352  Beekeeping 

Hives  of  various  types  are  made  in  which  insulation  is 
provided  permanently,  and  were  it  not  for  the  difficulty  of 
moving  such  hives  they  would  probably  be  more  in  favor 
among  commercial  beekeepers.  Top  packing  is  the  most 
beneficial  and  may  profitably  be  retained  throughout  the 
summer  if  practical. 

Insulation  for  the  conservation  of  heat  is  of  the  greatest 
importance,  but  even  a  well  insulated  hive  or  group  of  hives 
may  not  offer  adequate  protection  unless  sheltered  from 
strong  winds.  The  enormous  loss  of  heat  due  to  wind  is 
usually  not  appreciated.  A  high  fence  or  a  heavy  evergreen 
hedge  is  the  means  of  a  great  saving  of  bee  vitality. 

The  weakest  place  in  the  protection  of  the  colony  is  the 
entrance.  It  is  not  safe  to  contract  the  entrance  too  much 
for  it  may  then  become  entirely  closed  by  dead  bees.  Neither 
is  it  safe  to  close  the  entrance  entirely  and  provide  indirect 
ventilation  for  the  bees  become  restless  when  confined. 
The  entrance  should  be  closed  as  much  as  possible  and  yet 
provide  room  for  dead  bees.  An  entrance  f  by  8  inches 
is  perhaps  the  largest  ever  needed  in  wintering  outside 
and  this  is  often  too  large,  especially  for  relatively  weak 
colonies. 

The  wrapping  of  hives  in  black  tar  paper  and  leaving 
unprotected  the  fronts  of  the  hives  which  face  south  are 
often  advocated  on  the  theory  that  the  heat  of  the  sun  will 
more  rapidly  warm  up  the  hive  on  bright  days.  Since  the 
sun  shines  on  the  hive  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  time  in 
the  average  apiary  in  the  winter  season,  the  benefits  of  heat 
from  the  sun  should  not  be  overestimated.  Any  arrange- 
ment for  absorbing  heat  from  without  is  equally  effective 
in  dissipating  heat  from  within  and  consequently  a  heavy 
packing  on  all  sides  is  advisable.  If  possible  it  is  best  to 
have  the  packing  cases  painted  white  to  reduce  loss  of 
heat. 

To  summarize :  for  outside  wintering,  leave  abundant 
stores,  pack  early  and  heavily,  protect  from  wind  and  un- 
pack late. 


The  Care  of  Bees  in  Winter 


353 


Cellar  wintering. 

It  is  much  more  difficult  to  give  definite  advice  to  the 
beekeeper  who  wishes  to  winter  his  colonies  in  a  cellar, 
although  there  is  theoretically  every  reason  to  consider 
this  the  better  method.  If  good  food  is  given  the  colony 
(and  this  is  more  important  in  the  cellar  than  outdoors  in 
most  cHmates)  and  if  the  cellar  temperature  and  ventila- 
tion are  controlled  properly,  excellent  results  may  be  ob- 
tained and  a  considerable  saving  made  in  the  stores  consumed, 
although  the  saving  of  stores  is  a  minor  consideration.  The 
optimum  cellar  temperature,  as  stated  above,  is  usually 
beheved  to  be  between  40°  and  45°  F.  It  has  been  shown 
that  at  such  a  cellar  temperature  the  production  of  heat 
is  constantly  necessary  during  the  winter  and  this  may  be 
reduced  by  raising  the  cellar  temperature.  Great  care  must, 
however,  be  exercised  that  the  bees  do  not  become  excited 
and  crawl  out  of  the  hives.  In  general  a  cellar  temperature 
of  50°  F.  or  higher 
results  in  a  saving 
of  the  vitaUty  of 
the  bees.  Suffi- 
cient ventilation 
should  be  pro- 
vided to  prevent 
condensation  of 
water,  which  will, 
however,  be  rare 
at  the  higher  cel- 
lar temperature. 
Light  should  be 
excluded  and  the  ,:,      ,.o      r>    r  *    u       n  r         u 

.      .         -        ,  ,  ,        Fig.   143.  —  Roof  of  a  bee  cellar  away  from  a  house. 

colonies  should  be 

absolutely  undisturbed  from  the  time  they  are  put  in  place 
until  they  are  removed.  Most  beekeepers  use  the  cellars 
under  their  residences,  but  special  cellars  are  often  constructed 
under  the  honey-house  or  in  the  apiary  (Fig.  143).  Since  low 
temperatures  are  to  be  avoided  it  is  usually  preferable  to  use  a 
2a 


354 


Beekeeping 


cellar  under  the  residence,  especially  if  the  house  is  heated  by 
a  furnace.  If  separate  cellars  are  built  they  should  be  ex- 
ceptionally well  insulated  on  all  sides,  top  and  bottom,  so  that 
the  heat  generated  by  the  bees  will  be  sufficient  to  raise  the 
temperature  of  the  cellar  to  at  least  50°  F.  Honey  is  expen- 
sive fuel  and  bees  are  costly  furnaces,  consequently  artificial 


Fig.   144.  —  Arrangement  of  hives  in  a  cellar. 


heat  combined  with  insulation  will  be  found  to  result  in 
better  wintering  in  most  cases.  Few  of  the  special  cellars 
built  away  from  the  house  are  satisfactory  and  furthermore 
if  the  bees  are  not  near  by  there  is  danger  that  the  beekeeper 
will  not  give  them  the  attention  which  they  often  need  during 
the  confinement. 

In  the  construction  of  the  cellar,  care  should  be  exercised 
to  provide  good  drainage  and  ventilation  should  be  adequate 


The  Care  of  Bees  in  Winter  355 

to  remove  the  moisture,  so  that  condensed  moisture  will 
never  be  observed  on  the  bottom  boards.  If  moisture  con- 
denses on  the  covers  only  it  does  no  harm.  Since  adequate 
ventilation  without  too  great  a  reduction  in  temperature  is 
difficult  without  artificial  heat,  this  is  an  additional  argu- 
ment in  favor  of  using  the  cellar  under  the  residence  for  the 
bees. 

Colonies  should  not  be  put  into  the  cellar  until  all  brood 
has  emerged  and  until  all  the  young  bees  have  had  a  chance 
to  fly  to  void  their  feces.  There  is  a  growing  tendency  at 
present  to  put  the  colonies  in  early  and  this  is  to  be  com- 
mended. After  a  good  flight  and  after  the  bees  are  clustered, 
the  hives  should  be  carried  in  with  the  least  possible  dis- 
turbance. They  may  be  piled  one  above  the  other  as  high 
as  convenient  for  lifting  (Fig.  144)  and  the  tiers  should  be 
separated  by  alleys  wide  enough  for  convenient  passage. 

During  the  winter,  dead  bees  should  be  removed  from  the 
floor  as  well  as  from  the  bottom  boards  (with  the  minimum 
disturbance)  and  a  careful  watch  should  be  kept  that  the 
bees  do  not  become  excited  by  too  low  or  too  high  a  tempera- 
ture. A  reliable  thermometer  is  practically  necessary  in 
good  cellar  wintering  and  the  use  of  a  sling  psychrometer 
(wet  and  dry  bulb  thermometer)  to  determine  the  relative 
humidity  of  the  air  in  the  cellar  is  recommended.  If  the 
bees  remain  in  proper  condition  they  may  profitably  be  left 
in  the  cellar  until  rather  favorable  weather  arrives  in  the 
spring.  If  dysentery  develops  they  may  require  earlier 
removal. 

It  is  obviously  impossible  to  give  definite  dates  for  putting 
bees  in  the  cellar  or  for  taking  them  out.  This  the  beekeeper 
must  determine  according  to  the  climatic  conditions  and, 
of  course,  the  dates  may  vary  from  year  to  year.  Perhaps 
the  best  advice  is  to  put  bees  in  the  cellar  immediately  after 
the  last  good  flight  in  November.  Naturally  one  cannot  be 
sure  that  bees  will  get  a  flight  late  in  the  month.  It  is  also 
not  desirable  to  leave  the  bees  outside  waiting  for  a  flight 
which  may  not  come,  for  feces  accumulate  rapidly  in  such 


356  Beekeeping 

cool  weather,  and  if  bees  go  into  the  cellar  after  being  with- 
out a  flight  for  a  couple  of  weeks  they  are  poorly  prepared 
for  the  winter  confinement.  With  improved  cellar  condi- 
tions and  with  the  proper  food,  bees  may  be  put  in  earlier 
without  detriment. 

It  is  often  equally  difficult  to  decide  when  bees  should 
be  put  back  on  their  summer  stands.  They  should  not 
be  taken  out  until  fresh  pollen  and  nectar  are  available, 
unless  they  show  pronounced  signs  of  dysentery,  as  indicated 
by  spotting  of  the  hive  or  by  undue  excitement.  If  the 
cellar  temperature  and  humidity  are  right,  they  may  prof- 
itably be  left  in  until  danger  of  severe  cold  is  practically  past. 

After  colonies  are  removed  from  the  cellar,  they  may 
profitably  be  given  protection  to  aid  in  the  conservation 
of  heat.  The  elaborate  packing  used  on  colonies  wintered 
outdoors  is  not  practical  for  the  spring,  but  the  more  colonies 
are  protected  from  the  wind  and  the  more  insulation  that  is 
given  to  conserve  heat,  the  better  the  bees  are  able  to  build 
up  rapidly  to  full  strength. 

Effects  of  confinement. 

Bees  normally  do  not  eject  their  feces  in  the  hive,  and  if 
confined  there  for  a  time,  either  outdoors  or  in  the  bee  cellar, 
feces  may  so  accumulate  that  the  bees  are  unable  to  hold 
them.  The  hive  and  combs  are  then  spotted  and  this  con- 
dition the  beekeeper  knows  as  dysentery.  The  feces  are 
composed  of  the  parts  of  the  food  which  cannot  be  digested 
and  assimilated  and  of  the  excreted  products.  Therefore, 
a  food  which  contains  an  unusual  amount  of  indigestible 
material  is  ill  suited  for  food  during  a  period  of  confinement. 
Honey-dew  honey  is  specially  bad,  since  it  contains  a  rela- 
tively large  percentage  of  gums,  and  sugar  syrup  is  ideal  in 
so  far  as  the  prevention  of  dysentery  is  concerned. 

It  has  been  shown  in  the  paper  previously  mentioned  that 
the  accumulation  of  feces  causes  the  bees  to  become  more 
active,  and  this  in  turn  causes  an  increase  in  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  cluster  (Fig.  145).     The  temperature  may  finally 


The  Care  of  Bees  in  Winter 


357 


reach  a  point  where  brood-rearing  may  begin,  and  this  with 
the  increased  activity  causes  excessive  feeding  and  still 
greater  accumulation  of  feces.  It  is  therefore  quite  plain 
that  a  good  food  free  from  gums  is  of  primary  importance 


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Fig.  145.  —  Diagram  showing  the  effects  of  an  accumulation  of  feces.  The 
heavy  line  represents  the  temperature  of  the  cellar,  the  lighter  ones 
those  inside  the  clusters.  The  colony  which  died  in  December  was  on 
honey-dew  stores  and  the  one  which  lived  through  the  winter  was  on 
honey  stores.  Brood-rearing  occurred  in  the  honey-dew  colony  during 
November  and  it  also  suffered  from  dysentery.  , 


in  successful  wintering.  If  the  bees  are  free  to  fly  at  fre- 
quent intervals  the  inferior  food  will  do  less  harm  and  bees 
may  even  winter  on  honey-dew  honey  if  there  are  no  long 
periods  of  confinement.  It  is,  however,  doubtful  whether 
they  are  as  vigorous  later  on  if  the  food  is  inferior. 


358  Beekeeping 

Years  ago  it  was  asserted  ^  that  the  presence  of  pollen  in  the 
hive  where  the  bees  could  eat  it  is  responsible  for  dysentery, 
but  later  work  and  the  experience  of  beekeepers  do  not  war- 
rant this  conclusion.  A  suggestion  made  by  Holterman  is 
worthy  of  consideration  in  this  connection.  He  advocates 
giving  each  colony  ten  pounds  of  sugar  in  the  form  of  syrup 
late  in  the  fall  to  be  sure  they  have  enough  food.  This 
serves  another  purpose,  perhaps  not  fully  appreciated.  The 
syrup  will  be  stored  next  to  the  cluster,  the  bees  will  then 
use  it  first  and,  since  it  contains  no  gums,  the  accumulation 
of  feces  cannot  occur  until  the  syrup  is  exhausted. 

Spring  dwindling. 

If  the  colony  goes  into  winter  quarters  with  few  young 
bees  or  if  by  excessive  activity  during  the  winter  because 
of  poor  care  they  age  rapidly,  the  adult  bees  are  often  unable 
to  do  the  work  required  of  them  when  brood-rearing  begins. 
Then  they  may  die  more  rapidly  than  they  are  replaced  by 
the  emerging  bees.  To  this  condition  the*  name  spring 
dwindling  is  applied.  Obviously  the  proper  course  is  to 
prevent  the  condition.  The  prolonging  of  brood-rearing  in 
the  fall  and  especially  the  giving  of  proper  care  in  winter,  in- 
cluding good  food  and  protection  from  cold,  will  prevent  this 
condition.  If  it  should  occur,  it  may  be  reduced  somewhat 
by  abundant  protection  from  cold  and  wind  in  the  spring. 

A  final  word  of  qualification  should  be  inserted  here  at 
the  close  of  the  discussion  of  the  care  of  bees  in  winter. 
An  effort  has  been  made  to  give  the  best  advice  possible  in 
the  hght  of  our  present  limited  knowledge  of  this  subject. 
As  the  investigations  proceed,  some  of  the  statements  here 
made  may  need  qualification,  and  indeed  with  the  facts  at 
hand  some  of  them  could  be  limited  more  than  they  now  are. 

^  Heddon,  Jas.,  1885.     Success  in  bee  culture,     Dowagiac,  Mich. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

THE  SOURCES  OF  NECTAR  AND  POLLEN 

To  the  beekeeper  who  properly  studies  his  locahty,  one 
of  the  most  important  as  well  as  often  one  of  the  most  diffi- 
cult tasks  is  to  determine  the  sources  from  which  his  bees 
gather  nectar  and  pollen.  The  books  and  journals  devoted 
to  beekeeping  give  considerable  information  concerning 
honey-plants,  but  to  learn  which  ones  are  to  be  considered 
as  of  primary  importance  and  to  identify  properly  those  on 
which  bees  are  seen  working  is  sometimes  difficult.  In 
localities  where  only  one  or  two  plants  yield  surplus,  this 
problem  is  relatively  easy.  For  example,  in  part  of  the 
irrigated  regions  of  the  West,  alfalfa  and  sweet  clover  are 
almost  the  only  plants  which  the  beekeeper  need  consider, 
while  in  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States  there  are 
localities  where  white  clover  is  virtually  the  only  surplus- 
yielding  species  which  need  influence  the  apiary  manage- 
ment. 

Reason  for  knowledge  of  nectar  sources. 

Since  the  beekeeper  does  not  cultivate  anything  especially 
for  his  bees,  it  may  not  be  evident  why  he  should  study  the 
honey-plants.  While  it  is  true  to  a  large  extent  that  the 
beekeeper  must  take  whatever  the  plants  in  the  region  furnish, 
he  must,  to  be  successful,  know  when  the  dependable  plants 
will  bloom  so  that  he  may  have  his  colonies  strong  and  ready 
to  gather  the  harvest.  In  the  establishment  of  out-apiaries 
he  should  also  study  the  country  to  decide  on  the  best  loca- 
tions, those  nearest  to  the  most  valuable  and  abundant 
sources. 

359 


360  Beekeeping 

Difficulties  of  identification. 

At  times  this  work  calls  for  considerable  knowledge  of 
botany,  which  most  beekeepers  cannot  be  expected  to  possess. 
Because  of  errors  in  identification  and  failure  to  keep  in 
touch  with  recent  advances  in  the  science  of  botany,  the 
scientific  names  of  the  honey-plants  in  the  books  and  journals 
on  beekeeping  often  do  not  agree  with  those  of  the  leading 
botanical  works. 

Study  of  neighboring  locations. 

It  frequently  happens  that  a  beekeeper  maintains  his 
apiary  for  years  in  one  locality,  sometimes  experiencing  a 
total  failure  of  his  crop,  when  within  a  few  miles  of  him 
there  are  nectar  resources  on  which  he  might  draw,  but  of 
which  he  is  in  ignorance.  Many  beekeepers  have  come  to 
see  this  only  after  they  have  established  out-apiaries.  A 
beekeeper  who  is  depending  on  his  bees  for  a  considerable 
amount  of  his  income  should  make  a  study  of  the  regions 
about  him,  perhaps  for  a  distance  of  several  miles,  and  when 
he  finds  a  locality  which  looks  promising,  but  concerning 
which  he  can  get  no  definite  information,  it  will  pay  to  place 
one  or  two  colonies  there  and  to  inspect  them  at  intervals 
during  the  season.  In  this  way,  it  is  possible  at  times  to 
find  locations  favorable  for  migratory  beekeeping.  Any 
swamps  within  moving  distance  should  be  investigated, 
as  these  regions  are  more  dependable  than  drier  locations. 
In  view  of  the  fact  that  many  beekeepers  by  staying  at 
home  are  losing  nectar  that  is  abundant  only  a  few  miles 
away,  it  is  evident  that  scouting  should  be  more  generally 
practiced.  The  increasing  use  of  automobile  trucks  by 
beekeepers  will  probably  lead  to  more  migratory  beekeeping 
than  has  existed  in  the  past. 

Function  of  nectar. 

The  nectar  which  is  secreted  in  the  floWers  of  numerous 
species  of  plants  is  not  a  mere  by-product  of  plant  activity 


The  Sources  of  Nectar  and  Pollen  361 

but  serves  a  definite  function  in  the  plant's  life-cycle.  There 
are  numerous  adaptations  of  plant  structure  and  physiology 
which  serve  to  bring  about  cross-fertihzation,  by  which  the 
ovule  of  one  flower  is  fertiUzed  by  pollen  from  another 
flower,  often  from  another  plant  of  the  same  species.  Pollen 
of  certain  species  is  carried  from  flower  to  flower  by  the 
wind  but  one  of  the  most  common  methods  is  through  the 
agency  of  insects.  The  insects  which  perform  this  mission 
are  usually  attracted  by  the  nectar  which  the  flowers  secrete 
and,  in  going  from  flower  to  flower  to  get  this  nectar  for  food, 
they  act  as  unconscious  agents  of  cross-fertilization  by  carry- 
ing pollen  from  the  stamen  of  one  flower  to  the  pistil  of 
another.  The  nectar  is  therefore  the  attractive  object  in 
this  process. 

Many  insects  do  this  work ;  some  flowers  are  visited 
most  frequently  by  flies,  others  by  small  wild  bees,  but  a 
honeybee  not  only  goes  for  nectar  for  its  own  food  but  also 
carries  it  to  the  hive  for  food  for  the  brood  and  for  the  adults 
in  adverse  seasons.  It  therefore  makes  many  visits.  The 
honeybee  is  unique  in  many  ways,  not  the  least  wonderful 
of  which  is  its  hoarding  instinct.  That  the  honeybees  gather 
at  times  more  than  they  need  makes  it  profitable  for  the 
beekeeper  to  care  for  them  so  that  he  may  take  this  surplus. 

In  the  adaptations  of  Nature,  nectar  is  first  of  all  to 
attract  insects,  then  when  honeybees  gather  it,  they  do  so 
to  feed  themselves  and  their  brood.  The  surplus  honey 
is  therefore  simply  a  by-product,  an  over-production  due 
to  the  prodigality  of  Nature,  by  which  the  beekeeper  profits. 
Unless  gathered  by  the  bees  and  appropriated  in  part  by 
the  beekeeper,  much  of  this  nectar  would  simply  dry  up, 
consequently  honey-production  is  the  conservation  of  a 
natural  resource,  which  if  not  taken  immediately  is  lost. 

Variations  in  nectar. 

Nectar  varies  with  each  individual  species  of  plant. 
Since  plants  vary  in  the  color  of  flowers,  shape  of  leaves 
and  in  innumerable  other  characters,  it  should  not  be  a  mat- 


362  Beekeeping 

ter  of  surprise  that  they  also  show  marked  differences  in 
color,  water  content  and  flavor  of  nectar.  Not  only  do 
flowers  of  different  species  of  plants  secrete  nectar  of  various 
types  but  nectar  of  any  one  species  may  differ  according  to 
soil,  climatic  conditions  and  other  environmental  factors 
influencing  the  growth  of  the  plant,  just  as  may  the  leaves 
and  other  parts  of  the  plants.  For  example,  in  Colorado 
alfalfa  honey  is  a  beautiful  white  product  but  farther  south 
it  is  more  amber  in  color.  This  may  sometimes  be  due  to 
an  admixture  of  other  nectars. 

Variation  in  secretion. 

Nectar-secretion  may,  in  a  sense,  be  taken  as  an  indica- 
tion as  to  the  most  favorable  conditions  for  growth  of  any 
species  and  most  species  which  furnish  nectar  are  highly 
susceptible  in  this  respect  to  outside  influences.  Within  the 
limits  of  the  geographical  distribution  of  a  nectar-secreting 
species  there  may  be  a  more  restricted  area  in  which  the 
flowers  secrete  nectar.  The  species  may  be  rather  prevalent 
outside  its  usual  nectar-secreting  boundaries,  but  there  is 
probably  some  factor  in  the  environment  not  best  suited 
to  the  plant  if  it  fails  to  produce  nectar.  For  example, 
alfalfa  is  now  grown  in  all  sections  of  the  United  States 
but  the  Mississippi  River  may  be  taken  roughly  as  the  eastern 
boundary  of  its  secreting  area.  White  clover  produces  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  United  States  a  superb  honey, 
often  in  exceedingly  heavy  honey-flows,  but  farther  south 
it  becomes  a  honey-plant  of  secondary  importance. 

Effects  of  climatic  conditions  on  secretion. 

Any  species  of  nectar-secreting  plant  is  often  rendered 
non-productive  by  unfavorable  weather  conditions.  The 
smaller  plants  usually  cease  nectar-secretion  at  once  in  dry 
weather,  while  the  tree  sources  are  less  quickly  affected. 
Basswood  seems  to  be  an  exception,  however.  Hot,  sultry 
weather  with  rains  at  night  during  the  blooming  period  of 
white  clover  usually  brings  a  heavy  honey-flow.     The  sages 


The  Sources  of  Nectar  and  Pollen  363 

of  southern  California  secrete  nectar  in  abundance  only 
if  there  is  sufficient  rainfall  while  the  plants  are  growing, 
preparatory  to  flowering.  Because  of  this  fact,  the  bee- 
keepers of  that  region  carefully  watch  the  records  of  rain- 
fall during  the  winter  to  judge  as  to  their  prospects  for  a 
heavy  honey-flow  in  the  summer.  The  physiology  of  nec- 
tar-secretion is  so  little  understood,  by  beekeepers  at  any 
rate,  that  we  do  not  know  the  relative  importance  of  tem- 
perature, humidity,  barometric  pressure  and  other  environ- 
mental factors  in  bringing  about  abundant  secretion.  If 
these  influences  were  more  carefully  studied,  the  beekeeper 
could  better  forecast  his  crop  and  plan  his  work  day  by  day 
during  the  season.  As  it  is,  he  relies  on  his  unbounded 
hope  of  success  to  carry  him  through. 

Advantages  of  swamp  sources. 

Since  plants  which  grow  in  swamps  are  less  subject  to 
changes  in  available  moisture  and  usually  get  an  abundance, 
the  swamp  honey-plants  are  usually  more  dependable  than 
those  growing  in  dry  soils.  In  swamp  lands,  too,  the  honey- 
plants  are  less  liable  to  destruction  through  agricultural 
operations  and  conditions  are  more  likely  to  remain  the  same 
year  after  year.  These  facts  should  be  more  generally 
recognized  by  beekeepers  seeking  new  locations  for  the  es- 
tablishment of  apiaries.  The  tree  sources  are  usually  more 
dependable  than  smaller  plants. 

Cultivation  of  plants  for  nectar. 

It  was  stated  earlier  in  this  chapter  that  the  beekeeper 
does  not  cultivate  anything  especially  for  his  bees.  This 
has  been  tried  several  times  without  profit.  However, 
plants  which  are  nectar-producers  and  which  also  have  a 
value  in  some  other  respect  may  often  be  cultivated  with 
profit  to  the  beekeeper.  Alsike  clover  is  an  excellent  honey- 
plant  and  many  beekeepers  have  materially  improved  their 
ranges,  either  by  planting  this  clover  as  a  forage  plant  or 
by  encouraging  neighboring  farmers  to  do  so.     Buckwheat, 


364  Beekeeping 

alfalfa  and  cotton  may  also  be  mentioned  among  the  culti- 
vated plants  of  value  to  the  beekeeper.  In  seeking  to  im- 
prove a  range  by  changing  the  flora,  it  is  often  profitable  to 
scatter  seed  of  some  plant  which  will  occupy  waste  land. 
Although  the  appreciation  of  the  value  of  sweet  clover  as  a 
forage  plant  and  soil  renovator  is  increasing  among  farmers, 
it  is  still  valuable  to  the  beekeeper  chiefly  as  occupying 
waste  land,  crowding  out  less  valuable  plants.  The  scatter- 
ing of  sweet  clover  seed  along  embankments  and  over  waste 
land  has  proved  so  profitable  to  beekeepers  that  the  seed  is 
now  offered  for  sale  annually  in  the  bee  journals. 

Value  of  the  minor  sources. 

Those  plants  which,  because  of  scarcity  or  limited  secre- 
tion of  nectar,  fail  to  give  the  beekeeper  a  surplus  are,  never- 
theless, of  marked  value  and  are  worthy  of  more  consider- 
ation than  they  usually  receive.  The  amount  of  honey 
consumed  by  an  average  colony  of  bees  in  a  year  has  been 
variously  estimated  as  from  200  to  600  pounds.^  This  will, 
of  course,  vary  according  to  the  locality,  strength  of  colony 
and  other  factors.  Accepting  even  the  lowest  figure,  it 
is  evident  that  a  moderate  sized  apiary  obtains  tons  of  sugar 
from  the  flowers  in  the  surrounding  territory.  While  nectar 
comes  in  abundantly  enough  at  times  to  produce  a  surplus, 
the  beekeeper  does  not  leave  in  the  hives  at  the  close  of  a 
surplus  honey-flow  enough  to  feed  the  bees  until  another 
major  honey-flow,  except  possibly  at  the  close  of  the  season. 
The  bees  are  almost  constantly  gathering  nectar  from  the 
minor  sources  during  the  summer  and  the  aggregate  gathered 
from  these  plants  is  enormous.  If,  for  example,  nectar  were 
obtained  in  the  North  from  white  clover  only,  at  the  close 
of  the  flow  the  beekeeper  would  be  compelled  to  leave  about 

1  A  recent  estimate  is  one  made  by  Hommell  (1913,  [Consumption  of  a 
hive  of  bees  during  the  year]  La  Vie  agricole  et  rurale,  II,  No.  22,  pp. 
653-655)  in  which  it  is  concluded  that  an  average  of  480  pounds  is  needed, 
divided  as  follows:  maintenance  of  bees,  400  lbs.,  feeding  of  brood,  70 
lbs.,  wax  production,  10  lbs. 


The  Sources  of  Nectar  and  Pollen  365 

200  pounds  for  the  bees,  and  there  is  rarely  enough  honey 
from  white  clover  to  permit  this.  This  indicates  that  the 
beekeeper  is  debtor  to  the  minor  sources  for  much  more 
than  he  is  accustomed  to  believe. 

Gathering  of  pollen. 

The  amount  of  pollen  consumed  by  a  colony  annually  is 
also  considerable.  Estimates  of  the  averages  in  this  phase 
of  bee  feeding  are  not  available,  but  there  is,  nevertheless, 
some  basis  for  judging  the  consumption.  If  during  the 
active  season  a  colony  becomes  queenless  and  has  no  brood 
to  feed,  the  stores  of  pollen  increase  rapidly  and  several 
combs  are  often  filled  in  a  short  time.  It  can  scarcely  be 
claimed  that  queenless  bees  gather  more  pollen  than  normal 
ones  and,  in  fact,  it  is  sometimes  stated  that  the  gathering 
is  then  reduced,  so  that  it  is  safe  to  conclude  that  had  brood 
been  present  these  extra  stores  of  pollen  would  have  been 
consumed  almost  as  fast  as  gathered.  It  must  be  true, 
therefore,  that  a  colony  uses  many  frames  of  pollen  in  a 
season,  so  that  pollen  sources  are  important  to  the  beekeeper. 
In  gathering  pollen  a  bee  is  less  uniformly  beneficial  to 
plants  than  when  gathering  nectar.  They  may  cross-polli- 
nate the  flowers  when  so  engaged  but  they  are,  at  the  same 
time,  appropriating  a  part  of  the  pollen  on  which  fertiliza- 
tion depends.  In  some  species  of  plants,  an  abundance  of 
pollen  seems  to  serve  as  an  attractive  agent,  just  as  does 
nectar  in  those  species  provided  with  nectaries. 

ValiLe  of  hees  in  cross-pollination. 

In  discussing  the  plants  from  which  bees  gather  nectar, 
further  mention  should  be  made  of  the  beneficial  results 
which  arise  from  the  visits  of  bees  to  the  flowers  of  certain 
fruits.  As  was  explained  earlier  in  this  chapter,  nectar  is 
serviceable  to  the  plant  in  acting  as  an  attraction  to  insect 
visitors,  which  act  as  agents  in  cross-pollination.  Because 
of  the  mutual  adaptations  of  the  insects  and  plants,  they 
often  become  mutually  indispensable.       Some  varieties  of 


366  Beekeeping 

fruit  trees  are  incapable  of  self-fertilization,  in  other  cases 
fertilization  is  more  abundant  with  cross-pollination  and 
in  no  case  is  cross-pollination  detrimental.  It  is  therefore 
evident  that  successful  fruit-growing  is  dependent  on  insect 
visitation.  Of  all  the  insects  which  serve  the  fruit-grower, 
there  is  none  more  efficient  than  the  honeybee.  Further- 
more, in  one  important  respect  the  honeybee  becomes  the 
most  dependable  of  all.  At  the  season  when  the  fruit  trees 
blossom,  insects  of  the  wild  species  may  be  scarce,  having 
been  decimated  by  severe  winter  conditions,  and  we  have 
no  way  of  increasing  their  number.  While  honeybees  also 
suffer,  sometimes  severely,  from  winter  conditions,  it  is 
relatively  easy  not  only  to  build  up  the  colonies  in  the  early 
spring  but  to  bring  in  additional  colonies  as  agents  of  fertili- 
zation. It  therefore  is  a  simple  matter  for  the  fruit-grower 
to  provide  insects  to  fertilize  his  blossoms,  if  the  weather 
is  suitable  for  flights  during  the  blooming  period.  Progres- 
sive fruit-growers  in  all  parts  of  the  country  are  coming  more 
and  more  to  realize  this  and  many  of  them  now  keep  bees 
solely  for  the  benefits  to  the  fruit  crops. 

Since  it  unfortunately  sometimes  happens  that  ignorant 
or  incorrectly  informed  fruit-growers  do  considerable  injury 
to  colonies  of  bees  in  their  neighborhood  by  spraying  their 
trees  with  poisonous  chemicals  while  in  full  bloom,  it  may 
be  well  to  examine  the  facts  to  determine  who  receives  the 
greatest  benefits  from  the  presence  of  bees  in  the  average 
farming  community.  If  one  examines  a  fruit  tree  in  full 
bloom,  many  species  of  insects  will  be  found  at  work  on  the 
blossoms,  gathering  or  eating  nectar  and  pollen.  These 
numerous  species  vary  greatly  in  their  efficiency  in  bring- 
ing about  cross-pollination,  and  no  species  is  better  fitted 
by  structure  or  behavior  for  this  work  than  the  honeybee. 
Furthermore,  if  colonies  of  bees  are  to  be  found  near  by,  as 
there  generally  are,  there  are  usually  as  many  honeybees  on 
the  trees  as  there  are  insects  of  all  other  species  combined. 
Insects  of  many  of  the  visiting  species  stay  only  long  enough 
to  get  sufficient  to  eat  to  satisfy  their  own  immediate  needs, 


The  Sources  of  Nectar  and  Pollen  367 

but  the  honeybees  hurry  back  and  forth  from  the  hive,  mak- 
ing repeated  visits  and  cross-fertiHzing  innumerable  blossoms, 
in  their  efforts  to  increase  the  colony  stores.  The  honey 
obtained  from  fruit  blossoms  is  usually  small  in  quantity 
and  serves  only  to  stimulate  brood-rearing,  but  in  getting 
it  the  bees  benefit  the  fruit-grower  to  an  extent  which  can 
scarcely  be  over-estimated.  One  peculiarity  of  behavior 
is  worthy  of  special  mention  in  this  connection.  Honey- 
bees rarely  go  from  one  species  of  flower  (p.  119)  to  another 
(unless  the  flowers  are  virtually  identical)  while  on  one  trip 
from  the  hive.  There  is  also  evidence  worthy  of  belief 
that  an  individual  honeybee  confines  its  visits  to  one  species 
of  plant,  sometimes  for  several  days.  For  example,  a  bee 
will  not  be  seen  flying  from  an  apple  blossom  to  a  dandehon 
flower  growing  beneath  the  tree  and  then  perhaps  back  to 
an  apple  blossom.  Consequently,  on  visiting  an  apple 
blossom  it  does  not  present  dandelion  pollen  or,  in  fact,  any 
pollen  other  than  that  from  the  apple  and,  by  virtue  of  this 
constancy,  the  benefits  of  the  visits  of  honeybees  are  increased 
many  fold. 

In  view  of  these  facts,  it  is  not  difficult  to  believe  that  in 
many  orchards  over  half  of  the  fruit  set  is  to  be  attributed 
to  the  visits  of  the  honeybees.  Were  this  estimate  reduced 
to  ten  per  cent,  which  even  an  avowed  enemy  of  the  bee 
would  consider  too  low,  it  appears  that  the  fruit-growers 
receive  more  actual  financial  benefit  from  the  presence  of 
bees  in  the  average  farming  community  than  do  the  beekeep- 
ers who  own  them.  It  therefore  appears  quite  obvious 
that  it  is  to  the  interest  of  fruit-growers  to  encourage  bee- 
keeping in  every  way  in  their  immediate  localities. 

Damaging  effects  of  incorrect  spraying. 

Since  the  spraying  of  fruit  trees  while  in  bloom  is  highly 
injurious,  not  only  to  honeybees  but  to  all  of  the  insect 
visitors,  it  is  evident  that  such  spraying  is  to  that  extent 
detrimental  to  the  interests  of  the  fruit-grower  himself. 
Since  spraying  in  full  bloom  is  not  necessary  to  control  the 


368  Beekeeping 

codling  moth  and  is  not  advised  by  entomologists  and  since 
it  is  injurious  to  bees,  several  States,  at  the  instigation  of 
the  beekeepers,  have  enacted  laws  prohibiting  such  spraying. 
However,  it  is  difficult  to  enforce  such  a  law  and,  through 
ignorance,  carelessness  or  neglect,  serious  damage  is  done  to 
beekeepers  at  times.  It  may  also  be  added  that  spraying 
in  full  bloom  not  only  is  unnecessary  and  detrimental  to 
bees  but  it  directly  injures  the  fruit  blossoms.^  It  is  there- 
fore evident  that  in  the  light  of  our  present  knowledge, 
spraying  fruit  trees  while  in  full  bloom  is  unwarranted  and 
unwise. 

Bees  do  not  puncture  ripe  fruit. 

In  discussing  the  relationship  existing  between  beekeeping 
and  fruit-growing,  there  still  remains  one  source  of  misunder- 
standing between  men  engaged  in  these  branches  of  agri- 
culture which  should  be  mentioned.  Fruit-growers  often 
make  the  statement  that  honeybees  puncture  ripe  fruit  to 
suck  the  juices,  thereby  causing  considerable  financial  loss, 
as  well  as  hindering  the  picking  of  the  fruit.  This  claim  has 
been  the  cause  of  ill-feeling  in  certain  localities.  It  has, 
however,  been  abundantly  demonstrated  that  honeybees  do 
not  puncture  the  skin  of  any  fruit.  To  show  this,  if  a  colony 
of  bees  is  confined  in  a  hive  without  honey  and  is  given  spec- 
imens of  sound  fruit,  the  bees  will  die  of  starvation  without 
puncturing  a  single  fruit.  On  the  other  hand,  if  an  apple, 
plum  or  grape  is  punctured,  even  slightly,  and  given  to  bees 
in  this  way  they  will  suck  all  the  juice.  If  it  is  maintained 
that  confined  bees  may  act  differently  from  those  free  to  fly, 
it  may  be  replied  that  no  one  has  ever  seen  honeybees  punc- 
ture fruit  either  by  stinging  or  biting.  Furthermore,  if 
there  is  any  nectar  available,  honeybees  will  always  take 
that  in  preference  to  the  juice  of  injured  fruits.  If  then  a 
fruit-grower  sees  honeybees  sucking  his  fruit,  he  may  be  sure 

1  Cf.  Beach,  S.  A.,  and  Bailey,  L.  H.,  1900.  Bui.  196,  N.  Y.  Agric.  Exp. 
Sta.,  Geneva. 


The  Sources  of  Nectar  and  Pollen  369 

that  the  fruit  was  first  damaged  by  some  bird,  by  some  other 
insect  (e.g.  hornet),  by  a  bruise  or  by  some  form  of  decay 
and  he  may  further  be  certain  that  the  bees  are  sucking  the 
juices  of  only  damaged,  unmarketable  fruit.  It  may  also 
be  added  that  fruit  juices  are  most  undesirable  stores  for 
bees  and,  if  used  exclusively  in  winter,  the  colony  will  prob- 
ably die.  The  beekeeper  is  therefore  often  being  injured  as 
much  as  the  fruit-grower  when  the  bees  suck  overripe  or 
injured  fruits. 

Beekeepers  naturally  appear  biased  in  seeking  to  prove 
the  bee  a  harmless  and  solely  beneficial  insect.  They  even 
minimize  the  annoyance  of  the  stings  in  their  loyalty  to  the 
bee.  In  pointing  out  the  benefits  of  bees  and  denying  in- 
juries so  often  laid  at  their  door,  the  present  writer  may  also 
be  accused  of  this  bias.  The  investigations  that  have  been 
made,  however,  uniformly  support  the  contentions  of  the 
bee  enthusiasts  and  the  supposedly  harmed  fruit-grower 
should  be  led  to  suspect  that  his  judgment  is  in  error.  The 
ranks  of  the  bee  advocates  are  year  by  year  being  materially 
augmented  by  fruit-growers  who  have  become  convinced  of 
the  correctness  of  the  attitude  that  the  beekeeper  maintains 
toward  his  bees. 

Supposedly  poisonous  honeys. 

Frequent  mention  is  made  in  the  literature  on  bees  of 
supposedly  poisonous  honeys.  It  is  of  course  true  that  the 
juices  of  many  plants  are  poisonous  to  man  and  this  may  be 
the  foundation  for  the  belief  that  nectar  of  such  species  also 
contains  the  poisonous  principles.  Among  the  plants  some- 
times reported  to  produce  poisonous  nectar  from  which 
poisonous  honeys  are  made  by  the  bees,  are  mountain  laurel 
(Kalmia  latifolia),  tobacco  (Nicotiana  tahacum),  yellow 
jessamine  (Gelsemium  sempervirens) ,  sweet  pepper  bush 
(Clethra  alnifolia)  and  rhododendrons  (one  species  of  which 
is  supposed  to  be  the  source  of  honey  reported  by  Xenophon 
as  having  poisoned  his  soldiers) .  It  would  be  unsafe  to  deny 
that  the  nectar  of  any  plant  produces  a  poisonous  honey,  but 
2b 


370  Beekeeping 

it  is  certain  that  not  all  of  the  plants  named  above  produce 
such  honey.  Mountain  laurel,  yellow  jessamine  and  rho- 
dodendrons are  abundant  in  the  lower  Appalachian  Moun- 
tains and  there  are  more  bees  to  a  square  mile  in  this  section 
than  anywhere  else  in  the  United  States.  Assuredly  much 
nectar  is  gathered  by  bees  from  these  plants,  and  if  all  the 
honey  from  these  sources  were  poisonous  there  would  be  an 
epidemic  of  poisoning  annually  in  this  region.  Clethra  is  the 
source  of  much  honey,  eaten  widely  with  immunity.  If  any 
plant  is  ever  the  source  of  poisonous  honey,  this  fact  should 
be  determined  and  made  known,  but  the  vague  rumors  now 
current  are  valueless.  It  should  be  remembered  in  this 
connection  that  certain  individuals  have  idiosyncrasies 
toward  certain  foods  and  this  may  account  for  some  of  the 
recorded  cases  of  honey  poisoning.  In  some  rare  individuals 
the  eating  of  honey  from  any  source  or  thick  sugar  syrup 
causes  violent  pains  in  the  stomach.  Until  physiologists 
agree  as  to  the  cause  of  this  phenomenon  it  is  unsafe  to 
speculate,  but  assuredly  honeys  should  not  be  ranked  as 
poisonous  because  they  cause  distress  in  eccentric  indi- 
viduals. 

Plant  honey-dew. 

By  all  odds,  the  main  source  of  the  sugars  that  bees  get 
is  nectar  from  flowers.  There  are  other  sources  which  should 
be  mentioned,  however,  which  occur  more  frequently  than 
is  recognized  by  beekeepers.  In  the  absence  of  floral  nectar, 
bees  gather  sugars  from  any  available  source,  giving  prefer- 
ence to  those  which  have  attractive  odors.  Many  species  of 
plants  are  provided  with  glands  which  secrete  sweet  liquids 
and  which  are  located  outside  the  flowers  (extra-floral  nec- 
taries). Examples  of  this  are  found  on  the  leaves  of  cotton 
{Gossypium  hirsutum)  and  Hawaiian  hau  {Hibiscus  or  Pai'- 
itium  iiliaceum,  on  outside  of  flower  bracts  also).  Various 
acacias  have  glands  on  the  stems.  Other  examples  are 
foimd  on  castor  beans  (Ricinus)  and  partridge-pea  (Cham- 
cecrista  fasdculata)  and   other  cases  are   mentioned  in  the 


The  Sources  of  Nectar  and  Pollen  371 

list  of  honey-plants  at  the  close  of  this  chapter.  To  the 
product  which  the  bee  makes  from  sugar  from  these  sources 
the  name  plant  honey-dew  honey  is  given. 

Insect  honey-dew. 

The  main  source  of  honey-dew  is,  however,  not  plant 
secretion  but  insect  excretion.  Certain  plant-sucking 
insects,  belonging  to  the  order  Hemiptera,  such  as  plant- 
lice  (Aphidae),  scale  insects  (Coccidae),  leaf  hoppers  (Jas- 
sidae),  white  flies  (Aleyrodidse)  and  tree  hoppers  (Mem- 
bracidae),  all  belonging  to  the  Homoptera,  suck  the  juices 
of  the  various  plants  on  which  they  are  specifically  parasitic 
and  the  portion  of  the  sap  not  utilized  by  the  sucking  insect 
is  ejected,  falling  on  the  leaves  and  stems  of  the  plant  and 
even  running  off  to  the  ground  below.  Many  of  these  juices 
are  sweet  and  are  gathered  by  bees  exactly  as  they  gather 
nectar,  except  that  if  nectar  is  available  honey-dew  is  aban- 
doned. This  is  carried  to  the  hive,  ripened  and  sealed, 
making  what  is  known  as  honey-dew  honey.  This  substance 
is  high  in  its  content  of  gums  and  is  a  poor  food  for  bees  in 
winter.  It  was  formerly  believed  that  the  honey-dew  of 
some  aphids  was  secreted  from  the  tubular  processes  on 
the  dorsal  side  of  the  abdomen  but  it  is  now  established 
that  it  is  an  intestinal  excretion,  just  as  in  the  other  families. 
Honey-dew  is  gathered  by  ants  perhaps  more  than  by 
bees. 

The  sugars  in  honey-dew  honey  are  the  same  as  those  in 
honey  and  the  chief  chemical  difference  is  in  the  higher 
percentage  of  gums.  The  flavor  is  usually  poor,  and  most 
honey-dew  honeys  are  dark  in  color  and  granulate  quickly, 
often  before  sealing.  An  exception  is  that  from  the  sugar- 
cane leaf-hopper  {Perkinsiella  saccharicida)  of  Hawaii  which 
rarely  granulates.  Honey-dew  honey  is  probably  much  more 
common  than  is  appreciated  by  beekeepers,  for  the  excreting 
insects  are  present  in  millions  every  summer  and  probably 
many  of  our  honeys  contain  small  amounts  of  this  substance. 
It  is  not  unlikely  that  the  variation  in  gum  content  of  hon- 


372  Beekeeping 

eys  and  the  variation  in  color  from  a  supposedly  uniform 
floral  source  may  in  part  be  due  to  varying  admixtures  of 
honey-dew. 

In  the  summer  of  1909,  honey-dew  honey  was  exceptionally 
abundant  throughout  the  eastern  United  States.  This  was 
due  not  only  to  the  shortage  of  nectar  but  to  an  exceptionally 
large  number  of  aphids.  The  prevalence  of  these  insects  is 
determined  largely  by  immediate  climatic  conditions  and 
they  are  destroyed  by  millions  by  heavy  rains.  Dry  seasons 
may  therefore  dry  up  the  nectaries  and  at  the  same  time 
allow  plant-lice  to  propagate  excessively,  giving  us  our 
honey-dew  seasons. 

ANNOTATED   LIST   OF   HONEY-PLANTS 

In  the  following  list  an  effort  is  made  to  give  the  plants  of 
value  to  the  beekeeper,  as  sources  of  nectar  and  pollen,  with 
brief  notes  which  will  be  helpful  in  determining  the  relative 
importance  of  the  various  species.  While  this  list  is  chiefly 
for  plants  in  the  United  States,  mention  is  made  of  some 
important  plants  of  tropical  America,  especially  of  Hawaii 
and  Porto  Rico.    The  list  will  also  apply  to  Canada. 

The  arrangement  of  these  notes  in  alphabetical  order  is 
adopted  as  placing  the  notes  where  they  will  first  be  sought 
by  the  majority  of  readers,  under  the  common  name  of  the 
species.  The  following  of  the  natural  order,  by  families  and 
genera,  would  show  relationships  which  can  only  be  sug- 
gested here  by  naming  imder  each  family  the  species  of  that 
family  that  are  mentioned  in  the  notes. 

This  list  is  unavoidably  incomplete  because  so  little  sys- 
tematic work  has  been  done  on  honey-plants.  There  are 
hundreds  of  valuable  notes  on  these  plants  in  the  bee  journals 
but  they  are  hard  to  find  and  often  it  is  impossible  to  tell 
what  species  is  being  discussed  since  the  scientific  name  is 
not  given  or  is  given  incorrectly  and  since  the  same  common 
name  is  sometimes  given  to  two  or  more  species  in  various 
parts  of  the  United  States. 


The  Sources  of  Nectar  and  Pollen 


373 


Acacias,  wattles,  Acacia  spp.  Shrubs  or  trees,  flowers  small,  in 
heads.  Catclaw,  A.  Greggii,  May  and  July.  Honey  white, 
fine  flavor.  Catclaw,  A.  Greggii  and  A.  Wrightii,  semi-arid 
regions  of  Texas  and  Arizona.  Catclaw  and  the  closely  related 
huajilla,  Havardia  {Xygia)  brevifolia,  are  of  first  rank  among 
honey-plants.  The  various  wattles  are  listed  as  important 
honey  sources  in  Australia,  Africa  and  tropical  America. 
Black  wattle,  A.  decurrens  mollis,  and  other  species  are  of 
value  in  California  and  in  Hawaii.  Huisache,  A.  (Vachellia) 
Farnesiana,  is  also  present  along  the  Rio  Grande.  A.  con- 
stricta,  June,  Arizona.  Vari- 
ous species  in  subtropical  re- 
gions, probably  all  valuable. 

Aceraceae ;   see  Maple  family. 

iffi)sculaceae ;  see  Buckeye  family. 

Ailanthus,  tree  of  heaven,  Ailanthus 
glandulosa.  Native  of  China, 
reported  in  eastern  United 
States  and  as  valuable  in  Cali- 
fornia. Honey  ill-tasting. 
Extra-floral  nectaries  present. 

Ailanthus  family,  Simarubacese ; 
see  Ailanthus  and  Manchineel. 

Alder,  Alnus  spp.     Pollen. 

Alfalfa,  Medicago  saliva  (Fig.  146). 
Perennial,  12-18  inches,  ex- 
cessively branched  after  cut- 
ting, short  raceme  of  blue  or 
violet  flowers.  Blooms  several 
times  during  summer,  depending  on  number  of  cuttings.  Honey 
light  in  color,  granulates  quickly,  especially  after  extraction, 
flavor  excellent.  Grown  throughout  United  States  but  valuable 
as  a  honey-plant  only  west  of  Mississippi  River  (except  in  rare 
cases).  Native  of  old  world.  The  main  source  of  honey  in  the 
irrigated  regions  of  Colorado,  Utah  and  other  western  states. 
The  honey  from  this  source  is  reported  as  amber  from  more 
southern  localities,  but  this  may  be  due  to  an  admixture  of 
other  honeys.  Alfalfa  honey  is  produced  extensively  as  comb- 
-  honey,  but  in  this  form  it  suffers  in  comparison  with  that  of 
the  clovers  because  of  rapid  granulation.  The  flavor  is  de- 
scribed as  mint-like.  Also  called  Spanish  trefoil,  lucerne  and 
purple  medic.  An  excellent  forage  plant  yielding  several  crops 
a  season.  Frequently  cut  before  or  during  blooming  period. 
M.  denticulata  and  M.  lupulina  reported  from  California. 

Alfileria,  pin  clover,  Erodium  cicularium.    Annual,  April-Septem- 


FiG.  146.  —  Alfalfa. 


374  Beekeeping 

ber,  throughout  United  States,  especially  California.  Native 
of  old  world;  honey  of  good  quality,  pollen  abundant.  E. 
moschatum,  good  in  California. 

Algaroba;    see  Mesquite  and  also  Saman. 

Alsike  clover,  Trifolium  hyhridum.  Perennial,  erect,  1-2  feet, 
quite  similar  to  white  clover  except  in  size.  Cultivated  ex- 
tensively (usually  with  timothy)  for  hay.  Flowers  white 
tipped  with  pink,  to  pink.  May-October,  but  especially  June- 
July.  Honey  only  slightly  darker  than  that  from  white 
clover.  This  clover  is  rapidly  increasing  in  importance  to  the 
beekeeper.  Called  also  Swedish  clover.  Not  a  hybrid_^be- 
tween  white  and  red  clovers  as  name  indicates. 

Amaryllidaceae ;   see  Amaryllis  family. 

Amaryllis  family,  Amaryllidaceae ;  see  Century  Plant  and  Lophiola. 

Ambrosiaceae ;  see  Ragweed  family. 

American  bee  balm ;   see  Horsemint. 

American  holly ;  see  Gallberry. 

Ampelopsis,  Ampelopsis  spp.     Nectar,  pollen. 

Anacardiaceae ;  see  Sumac  family. 

Anemone,    Anemone   quinquefolia.     Pollen. 

Antigonon  (Corculum).  Listed  by  Root,  1910,  Florida,  California, 
tropics. 

Apple,  Pyrus  Mains  (Fig.  2).     Honey  light  amber,  superb ;  pollen. 

Apple  family,  Malacese  (a  subfamily  of  Rosaceae) ;  see  Pear,  Apple, 
Juneberry  and  Haws. 

Aquif oliaceae ;   see  Holly  family. 

Asclepiadaceae  ;    see  Milkweed  family. 

Ash,  Fraxinus  spp.    Pollen. 

Asparagus,  Asparagus  officinalis.     Honey  amber,  pollen. 

Asters,  Aster  spp.  Perennial  (rarely  annual),  1-4  feet  or  more, 
ray  flowers  white  or  purple,  sometimes  pink  or  blue,  July  to 
frost.  Honey  amber  in  color,  flavor  often  pronounced. 
Throughout  the  United  States,  especially  in  North,  different 
species  being  adapted  to  differences  in  soils  and  moisture. 
A.  ericoides  and  A.  novce-anglice  are  said  to  be  the  most  val- 
uable to  the  beekeeper.  The  goldenrods  which  bloom  at  the 
same  time  and  which  are  more  conspicuous  get  much  of  the 
credit  for  nectar-secretion  which  belongs  rightly  to  the  asters. 
Valuable  especially  in  providing  winter  stores,  although  the 
so-called  fall  honeys  are  not  so  good  for  this  purpose  as  the 
purer  types  of  honey  (see  Wintering).  Britton  and  Brown 
mention  142  species  of  this  genus  in  the  United  States  and  250 
species  in  all.  Plants  of  related  genera  are  also  sometimes 
known  as  asters.  The  species  blooming  early  are  rarely 
valuable  as  honey-plants. 


The  Sources  of  Nectar  and  Pollen 


375 


Azalea,  wild  honeysuckle,  Azalea  spp.    Some  nectar,  pollen. 


Tilia   americana    (Fig.    147).     In 


Ball  or  button  sage ;  se 

Banana,   Musa   spp.     Cultivated  in  Florida  and   extensively   in 
tropical  America.     Pollen. 

Banana  family,  Musacese ;   see  Banana. 

Barberry,  Berheris  vulgaris.     Pollen,  nectar. 

Barberry  family,   Berberidaceae ;    see   Barberry,  Berheris   pinnata 
and  B.  trifoliolata. 

Basswood,  linden,  whitewood, 
forests  and  in  moist  soils, 
tree  to  125  feet,  leaves 
oblique,  flowers  borne  on 
bracts  2-4  inches,  June- 
July  (usually  at  end  of 
white  clover  honey-flow). 
Honey  light  amber  to 
white,  flavor  when  un- 
mixed is  pronounced  (es- 
pecially if  extracted  when 
unripe)  and  not  especially 
pleasant,  but  when  mixed 
with  white  clover  honey 
is  exceptionally  fine.  In 
rich  woods  in  northeast- 
ern United  States  and  in 
mountains  south  to  Geor- 
gia, west  to  Nebraska. 
Formerly  much  more 
abundant.  The  culti- 
vated species,  T.  europcea, 
is  equally  valuable  when 
present.  The  wood  is 
used  in  making  the  one-piece  sections  used  almost  universally 
for  comb-honey.  Nectar  secretion  quickly  affected  by  adverse 
weather  conditions.  A  heavy  yielder  when  weather  preceding 
the  honey-flow  is  favorable.  The  heavy  cutting  of  these  trees 
has  greatly  decreased  the  importance  of  this  tree  to  the  bee- 
keeper. The  name  linn  (or  lin)  or  lime  tree  is  given  to  the 
European  species,  T.  europcea.  T.  heterophylla  is  also  common 
(called  bee- tree).  T.  pubescens  has  a  more  southern  distribu- 
tion.    The  other  species  of  Tiliacese  are  mainly  tropical. 

Bayberry ;  see  Sweet-Gale. 

Bayberry  family,  Myricaceae ;  see  Sweet-Gale. 

Bearberry ;  see  Manzanita. 


Fig.  147.  —  Basswood. 


376  Beekeeping 

Bee  balm,  Melissa  officinalis.     Nectar. 

Beech,  Fagus  spp.     Pollen. 

Beech  family,  Fagacese;  see  Beech,  Chinquapin,  Chestnut  and 
Oak. 

Bee-tree ;  see  Basswood. 

Beggar's  tick;    see  Spanish  Needle. 

Bell-flower,  campanula,  campanilla,  Ipomoea  spp.  Of  primary 
importance  in  Cuba,  honey  white  of  finest  flavor.  Other 
species  in  this  family  furnish  nectar. 

Bell-flower  family,  CampanulaceaB ;    see  Bell-flower. 

Berberidaceae ;  see  Barberry  family. 

Berberis  pinnata.     California.     Honey  amber. 

Berberis  trifoliolata.  Texas,  January-February,  nectar  and  abun- 
dant pollen. 

Betulaceae ;  see  Birch  family. 

Bignoniaceae ;    see  Trumpet-creeper  family. 

Birch,  Betula  spp.     Pollen. 

Birch  family,  Betulaceae ;  see  Hornbeam,  Hazelnut,  Birch  and  Alder. 

Blackberry ;   see  Raspberry. 

Black  mangrove,  Avicennia  nitida.  Perhaps  the  most  abundant 
source  of  nectar  ever  observed.  Killed  by  frost  in  Florida  in 
1894  and  is  returning  abundantly.     Found  in  Porto  Rico. 

Black  sage  ;   see  Sage. 

Black  ti-ti ;  see  Ti-ti. 

Black  walnut,  Juglans  nigra.     Pollen. 

Black  wattle ;   see  Acacia. 

Bloodroot,  Sanguinaria  canadensis.     Pollen. 

Bloodwort  family.     Hsemodoracese;   see  Morong. 

Blueberry,  Vaccinium  spp.     Nectar,  pollen. 

Blue-curls,  Trichostema  lanceolatum.  Honey  white,  granulates 
quickly,  August-November. 

Blue  gum ;   see  Eucalyptus. 

Blue-thistle  ;   see  Viper's  Bugloss. 

Blueweed ;  see  Viper's  Bugloss. 

Bokhara  clover ;   see  Sweet  Clover. 

Boneset,  thoroughwort,  Eupatorium  perfoliatum.    Nectar.    Autumn. 

Borage  family,  Boraginaceae ;    see  Viper's  Bugloss. 

Boraginaceae ;   see  Borage  family. 

Buckeye,  JEsculus  glabra.     Pollen,  nectar. 

Buckeye  family,  ^sculaceae ;  see  Horsechestnut,  Buckeye  and 
California  Buckeye. 

Buckthorn,  coffee  berry,  Rhamnus  cathartica. 

Buckthorn  family,  Rhamnacese;  see  Buckthorn,  Cascara  Sagrada, 
Coffee  Berry,  White  Lilac  and  Rattan  Vine. 

Buckwheat,  Fagopyrum  esculentum  (Fig.  148).     Annual,  1-3  feet, 


The  Sources  of  Nectar  and  Pollen 


377 


blooms  June-September,  depending  on  time  of  planting.  Honey 
dark  purple  in  color,  flavor  strong  and  rank,  of  use  mainly  in 
baking,  body  usually  heavy  although 
in  rapid  flows  it  may  be  thin.  In  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  Michigan,  espe- 
cially, but  found  in  almost  all  parts  of 
northern  United  States.  Native  of  old 
world.  Sometimes  escapes  from  culti- 
vation. Reliable  as  a  nectar  plant  es- 
pecially in  more  northern  localities. 
Nectar  secreted  most  abundantly  in  the 
morning. 

Buckwheat  family,  Polygonacese ;  see  Wild 
Buckwheat,  Antigonon,  Buckwheat, 
Heartsease  and  Polygonum  lapathi- 
folium. 

Bur-marigold ;   see  Spanish  Needle. 

Bush  clovers,  Lespedeza  spp. 

Butterfly-weed ;  see  Milkweed. 

Button-bush,  honey-balls,  Cephalanthus  oc- 
cidentalis.  In  swamps,  honey  mild, 
light  color. 


Fig.  148.  —  Buckwheat. 


Cabbage  palmetto,  Sahal  palmetto.  To  30  feet,  July- August,  honey 
white,  mild,  Florida. 

Cabbage  tree  ;   see  Moca. 

Cactaceae ;  see  Cactus  family. 

Cactus,  prickly  pear,  Opuntia  spp.  Locally  in  deserts  and  semi- 
arid  regions,  honey  heavy  of  poor  flavor. 

Cactus  family,  Cactaceae ;    see  Cactus. 

Caesalpinaceae ;  see   Senna  family. 

California  buckeye,  Msculus  californica.  Considerable  nectar. 
Reported  that  the  honey  poisons  the  bees  (California) ;  more 
than  doubtful. 

California  laurel,    Umhellularia  californica. 

California   poppy,    Eschscholtzia   californica. 
some  nectar,  California. 

Campanula ;   see  Bell-flower. 

Campanula ;  see  Bell-flower. 

Campanulaceae ;  see  Bell-flower  family. 

Canada  thistle,  Carduus  arvensis.     Honey  of  good  quality. 

Caper  family,  Capparidacese ;  see  Cleome  and  Jackass  Clover. 

Capparidaceae ;  see  Caper  family. 

Caprifoliaceae ;  see  Honeysuckle  family. 

Carpet-grass,  Lippia  nodijlora.     Of  value  in  California. 


December-March. 
March-July,   pollen, 


378 


Beekeeping 


Carrot  family,  Umbelliferse.     Various  species  are  of  minor  impor- 
tance as  sources  of  nectar  and  pollen. 
Cascara   Sagrada,  Rhamnus    Purshiana.     Honey  dark,    does    not 

granulate.     California. 
Catalpa,  catawba,  Catalpa  speciosa.     Of  little  value. 
Catawba ;   see  Catalpa. 

Catnip,   Nepeta  Cataria.     Nectar.     Unimportant. 
Century  plant,  Agave  americana.     Heavy  yielder  in  semi-arid  tropi- 
cal localities,  July-August.     Also  other  species  of  Agave. 
Chestnut,  Castanea  dentata.     Some  nectar,  pollen. 
Chicory,  Cichorium  Intyhus.     July-October,  eastern  United  States. 
Chicory  subfamily;  see  Chicory,  Dandelion  and  Sow  Thistle. 
China-tree,  Pride  of  India,  Melia  azedarach.     Spring,  of  value  in 

early  brood-rearing,  Texas. 
Chinquapin,  Castanea  pumila.     Honey  dark  amber  of  most  unpleas- 
ant   flavor,    Georgia    and    other 
southern  States. 
Cichoriacese ;  see  Chicory. 
Cistaceae  ;    see  Rock-rose  family. 
Citrus  fruits,  lime,  orange,  grape  fruit, 
lemon.    Citrus    spp.      Cultivated, 
Florida,   California,    Texas,    some 
species    wild    in    Florida.     Trees. 
Honey  white,    heavy    body,  deli- 
cious flavor.     The  value  of   these 
trees  to  the  beekeeper  is  probably 
overestimated    and     honey    from 
other  sources  is  probably  sold  as 
"  orange  honey,"  under  which  name 
the  citrus  honeys  are  usually  all 
sold. 
Clematis,  Clematis  sp.     Superb  honey 
when  sufificiently  abundant.  New 
England.     Pollen. 
Clematis  ligusticif  olia.     In  hills  of  Cali- 
fornia,  June-July.      Pollen  abun- 
dant. 
Cleome,  spider-flower,  Cleome  serrulata 
and  C.  spinosa  (Pig.  149).     Herbs 
2-3  feet,  erect,  flowers  pink  or  white 
in  C.  serrulata,  purple  in  C.  spinosa. 


Fig.      149.  —  Spider-flower 


(Cleome).  ^  serrulata  in  prairies  Illinois  west 

to  Rocky  Mountains ;  C.  spinosa,  from  tropical  America,  some- 
times cultivated,  Illinois  to  Louisiana.  C.  serrulata  is  called 
Rocky  Mountain  Bee-plant  by  Colorado  beekeepers.     Under 


The  Sources  of  Nectar  and  Pollen 


379 


favorable  conditions  both  species  are  heavy  yielders,  but  they 
are,  nevertheless,  not  of  primary  importance. 

Clethracese ;   see  White  Alder  family. 

Clover ;  see  Sweet  Clover,  White  Clover,  Alsike  Clover,  Crimson 
Clover,  Bush  Clovers  and  Alfileria. 

Cocklebur,    Xanthium  pennsylvanicum.     Pollen  in  Autumn 

Cocoanut  palm,  Cocos  nucifera.  Honey  amber,  of  secondary  im- 
portance. West  Indies. 

Coffee  berry,  Rhamnus  californica.  Honey  amber,  April-May. 
Foothills  of  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains. 

Coffee  berry;  see  also  Buck-  -^-««*»^ 

thorn.  X^^ 

Compositae ;  see  Thistle  family. 

Coral-berry;  see  Indian  Cur- 
rant. 

Corculum ;  see  Antigonon 
leptopus. 

Coreopsis  ;  see  Spanish  Needle. 

Corn,  Zea  mays.  Pollen.  Re- 
ported as  sometimes  yield- 
ing nectar  from  the  tassels. 

Cornaceae ;  see  Dogwood 
family. 

Cotton,  Gossypium  hirsutum 
(Fig.  150).  Cultivated, 
southern  States.  June- 
August.  Increasing  in 
importance.  Extra-floral 
nectaries  on  leaves  and 
bracts. 

Cowpea,        Vigna        sinensis. 
Honey  light,  of  poor  flavor, 
nectaries. 

Creeping  thyme,  Thymus  Serpyllum.  Perennial  herb,  branched, 
creeping,  forming  dense  mats,  flowers  in  clusters.  Honey 
probably  amber,  flavor  not  as  good  as  that  of  many  other 
honeys.  In  thickets  and  waste  places  south  to  Pennsylvania. 
June-September.  Native  of  Europe.  From  a  plant  of  this 
genus  the  celebrated  honey  of  the  ancient  Greeks  was  pro- 
duced, especially  on  Mount  Hymettus. 

Crimson  clover,  Trifolium  incarnatum.  Annual  erect,  6-30  inches, 
flowers  crimson  in  long  heads.  Honey  quite  like  that  of 
white  clover.  Cultivated  for  hay  and  in  waste  places.  Na- 
tive of  Europe.  Blooms  somewhat  earlier  than  the  other 
clovers. 


Fig.  150.  —  Cotton. 
Bees  get  nectar  from  extra-floral 


380 


Beekeeping 


Crowfoot    family.      RanunculacesB ;      see    Anemone,     Liverwort, 

Clematis  and  Meadow-rue. 
Cruciferae ;  see  Mustard  family. 
Cucumber;    see  Gourd  family. 
Cucumber  tree  ;   see  Tulip  Poplar. 
Cucurbitaceae ;   see  Gourd  family. 
Currant,  Ribes  spp.     Pollen,  nectar. 
Cyperaceae ;   see  Sedge  family. 
Cyrilla  family,  Cyrillacese ;  see  Ti-ti. 
Cyrillaceae ;  see  Cyrilla  family. 

Dandelion,  Taraxacum  officinale,  or  Leontodon  Taraxacum  (Fig. 
151).     Perennial    herb    growing    close    to    ground.     Flowers 

yellow,  blooms  throughout 
year  but  most  abundantly  in 
early  spring  (with  or  following 
fruit  bloom  in  North) .  Honey 
amber.  In  waste  places  and  a 
weed  in  lawns  and  fields 
throughout  the  United  States. 
Not  valuable  as  a  source  of 
surplus  honey,  but  especially 
helpful  in  building  up  colonies 
in  early  spring. 

Date  palm.  Phoenix  dactylifera. 
Abundant  nectar,  California, 
Arizona. 

Desert  willow,  Chilopsis  linearis. 
New  Mexico. 

Dogwood  family,  Cornacese;  see 
Tupelo. 

Dutch  clover ;  see  White  Clover. 

Ebenaceae ;  see  Ebony  family. 
Ebony  family,  Ebenaceae ;  see  Per- 
simmon. 
Elder,     Sambucus     spp.       Pollen, 
nectar. 
Fig.  151.  —  Dandelion.  Elm,  Ulmus  spp.     Pollen. 

Elm  family,  Ulmacese;    see  Elm, 
Granieno  and  Hackberry. 
English  walnut,  Juglans  regia.     Nectar,  pollen. 
Ericaceae ;   see  Heath  family. 

Eucalyptus,  Eucalyptus  spp.  Numerous  species  of  value  intro- 
duced into  California.     The  species  vary  greatly  in  nectar 


The  Sources  of  Nectar  and  Pollen  381 

secretion.  Honey-scented  gum,  E.  melliodora,  swamp  mahog- 
any gum,  E.  robusta,  white  iron  wood,  E.  leucoxylon,  and  blue 
gum,  E.  globulus,  are  those  most  valued.  Primary  honey 
plants  in  Australia.     Honey  sometimes  strong  flavored. 

Eucalyptus  family,  Myrtacese ;    see  Eucalyptus  and   Rose  Apple. 

Evening  primrose  family,  Onagraceae ;   see  Willow-herb. 

Eysenhardtia,  rock  brush,  Viborquia  orthocarpa.  Important  in 
southwest  Texas. 

Fagaceae;    see  Beech  family. 

Figwort  family,  Scrophulariacese ;  see  Mullen  and  Simpson's 
Honey  Plant. 

Fireweed,  Erechtites  hieracifolia.  Eastern  United  States,  July- 
September. 

Fireweed ;  see  also  Willow-herb. 

Frostweed ;  see  Rockrose. 

Gallberry,  inkberry.  Ilex  glabra.  Shrub,  2-6  feet,  leaves  ever- 
green, few  teeth  at  apex  or  entire.  May- July.  Honej^  light 
color  and  of  fine  quality.  Sandy  soils,  Massachusetts  to 
Florida,  west  to  Louisiana,  mainly  along  coast,  abundant  in 
North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia  and  Alabama, 
especially  in  cut-over  forest  lands.  An  important  and  in- 
creasingly valuable  source  of  nectar  in  the  southern  States 
where  considerable  honey  is  produced  (chiefly  for  local  con- 
sumption). A  reliable  yielder.  Other  species  of  holly  are  also 
valuable,  as  American  holly,   I.  opaca,  April- June. 

Geraniaceae;   see  Geranium  family. 

Geranium  family,  Geraniaceae  ;   see  Alfileria. 

Goldenrod,  Solidago  spp.  Perennial  herbs,  1-5  feet,  flowers 
generally  yellow  in  panicles  or  heads,  August  to  frost.  Honey 
golden  yellow,  not  of  finest  flavor,  heavy  body.  Various 
species  are  adapted  to  all  types  of  soil,  but  those  growing  in 
moist  soils  are  the  only  ones  of  value  to  the  beekeeper.  The 
value  of  the  goldenrods  is  probably  exaggerated.  In  many 
places  they  are  the  most  conspicuous  flowers  in  the  fall  and 
get  credit  for  honey  which  probably  comes  mainly  from  the 
asters.  Eighty-five  species,  mostly  in  North  America.  The 
species  which  bloom  early  are  usually  valueless.  The  odor  of 
the  fall  honeys  is  so  pronounced  that  it  can  be  detected  some 
distance  from  the  hive  when  freshly  gathered. 

Gooseberry,  Grossularia  spp.     Pollen,  nectar. 

Gooseberry  family,  Grossulariacese ;   see  Gooseberry  and  Currant. 

Gourd  family,  Cucurbitaceae.  Various  species  furnish  pollen  and 
nectar,  especially  the  genera  Cucurbita,  Cucumis  and  CitruUus, 
pumpkin,   squash,   cucumber   and  watermelon. 


382  Beekeeping 

Gramineae ;  see  Grass  family. 

Granjeno,  Celtis  'pallida.     Southwest  Texas,  of  value. 

Grape  family,  Vitaceae  ;  see  Grapes,  Ampelopsis  and  Virginia  Creeper. 

Grape  fruit ;  see  Citrus  Fruit. 

Grapes,  Vitis  spp.     Pollen,  some  nectar. 

Grass  family,    Gramineae;    see   Sorghum    and  Corn.     Wind  pol- 
linated, some  species  visited  for  pollen.    ^ 

Greasewood,  Adenostema  fasciculatum.     April- July.     California. 

Grossulariaceae ;  see  Gooseberry  family. 

Guam^. ;   see  Guava.  \ 

Guava,  Inga  vera,  and  guamS,  /.  laurina.     Of  primary  importance 

in  Porto  Rico,  found  elsewhere 
in  West  Indies   and  Central 
America. 
Gum;    see  Eucalyptus. 

Hackberry,  Celtis  spp.  Nectar, 
abundant  pollen. 

Haemodoraceae ;  see  Bloodwort 
family. 

Hamamelidaceae ;  see  Witch-hazel 
family. 

Haws,  Crataegus  spp.  Nectar, 
pollen. 

Hazelnut,  Corylus  spp.     Pollen. 

Heartsease,  lady's  thumb,  smart- 
weed,  Persicaria  persicaria 
(Fig.  152).  Annual  herb,  6-24 
inches  or  more  (especially  in 
middle  west).  Flowers  in 
dense  racemes,  pink  and 
purple,  June-October,  espe- 
cially August-October.  Honey 
light  amber  to  dark,  flavor 
good  but  easily  lost  by  heat- 

Fig.  152. -Heartsease.  j^^'     granulates        On    waste 

land  throughout  the  United 
States,  often  abundant.  An  important  source  in  middle  west. 
Native  to  old  world.  The  common  name  heartsease  is  given 
to  this  plant  by  most  beekeepers.  There  are  about  200  species 
of  this  genus,  71  occurring  in  North  America,  probably  most 
of  them  contributing  nectar. 
Heath  family,  Ericaceae;  see  Azalea,  Rhododendron,  Mountain 
Laurel,  Sourwood  and  Manzanita.  The  heather,  Calluna 
vulgaris,  of  Europe  is  a  member  of  this  family. 


The  Sources  of  Nectar  and  Pollen 


383 


Much  less  important 


Heather ;  see  Heath  family. 

Hemp,  Cannabis  sativa.     Pollen,  eastern  United  States. 

Hickory,  Carya  sp.     Pollen. 

Hog  plum,  jobo,  Spondias  lutea.     Valuable  in  Porto  Rico. 

Holly ;   see  Gallberry. 

Holly  family,  Aquifoliaceae ;  see  Gallberry. 

Honey-balls ;   see  Button-bush. 

Honey-locust,  Gleditsia  triacanthos.  Nectar, 
than  black  locust. 

Honey-scented  gum ;   see  Eucalyptus. 

Honeysuckle  ;   see  Tartarian  Honeysuckle. 

Honeysuckle,  wild ;  see  Azalea. 

Honeysuckle  family,  Caprifoliacese ;  see  Elder,  Indian  Currant  and 
Tartarian  Honeysuckle. 

Hop,   Humulus  Iwpulus.     Pollen,  general  in  the  United  States. 

Horehound,    Marruhium   vulgare.     Common   throughout   most   of 
United    States,    native    of    old   world. 
Honey  dark  amber,  strong  flavor,  sur- 
plus locally  in  California. 

Hornbeam,  Carpinus  caroliniana.  Tree  to 
40  feet,  pollen,  eastern  United  States. 

Horsechestnut,  JEsculus  Hippocastanum. 
Some  pollen  and  nectar. 

Horsemtnt,  Monarda  punctata  (Fig.  153). 
Perennial  herb,  2-3  feet,  flowers  in 
whorls  on  stem  and  terminal,  April- 
June  in  Texas,  later  farther  north. 
Honey  amber,  flavor  somewhat  strong. 
Southern  New  York  to  Florida,  west 
to  Wisconsin  and  Texas,  especially  val- 
uable in  eastern  Texas  where  it  is  of 
major  importance.  In  the  genus  Mon- 
arda there  are  ten  species,  probably 
all  valuable  to  the  beekeeper.  Wild 
bergamot,  M.  fistulosa,  and  American 
bee  balm,  M.  didyma,  should  be  espe- 
cially mentioned.  M.  clinopodioides  is 
also  listed  for  Texas  as  important. 

Huajilla;    see  Acacias. 

Huckleberry,    Gaylussacia    spp.     New    England, 
along  coast. 

Huckleberry  family,  Vacciniacese ;  see  Huckleberry  and  Blueberry. 

Huisache ;   see  Acacia. 

Hydrophyllaceae ;   see  Water-leaf  family. 

Hypericaceae ;  see  St.  John's-wort  family. 


Fig.  153.  —  Horsemint. 


of    importance 


384 


Beekeeping 


Indian    currant,    coral-berry,  Symphoricarpos   racemosus.   Nectar, 

July. 
Inkberry ;  see  Gallberry. 

Iron-weed,  Vernonia  spp.     Nectar,  late  summer. 
Iron-wood ;   see  Ti-ti. 

Jackass  clover,  Wislizenia  refracta.  August-October.  Honey 
white.     San  Joaquin  valley,  California,  increasing. 

Jerusalem  artichoke  ;   see  Sunflower. 

Jobo  ;   see  Hog  plum. 

Judas  tree,  red  bud,  Cercis  canadensis.     Nectar,  pollen. 

Juglandaceae ;   see  Walnut  family. 

Juneberry,  service  berry,  Amelanchier  canadensis.  March-May, 
tree  to  60  feet. 

Keawe ;  see  Mesquite. 


Lady's  thumb  p  see  Heartsease. 

Lantana,  Lantana  sp.     Valuable  in  Hawaii. 

Lauraceae ;   see  Laurel  family. 

Laurel  family,  Lauraceae ;   see  Red  Bay  and  California  Laurel. 

Leatherwood ;  see  Ti-ti. 

Leguminosse ;  see  Pea 

family. 
Lemon ;     see    Citrus 

Fruits. 
Lilac;   see  White  Li- 
lac. 
Liliacese ;     see     Lily 

family. 
Lilies,     Lilium     spp. 

Pollen. 
Lily  family,  Liliacese ; 
see  Onion,  Lilies, 
Asparagus     and 
Yucca. 
Lima   bean,   Phaseo- 
lus  sp.      Impor- 
tant   locally     in 
California,  where 
Fig.  154.  —  Locust.  grown         exten- 

sively. 
Lime ;  see  Citrus  Fruits. 
Lime  tree  ;  see  Basswood. 
Lin ;  see  Basswood. 


The  Sources  of  Nectar  and  Pollen  385 

Linden ;  see  Basswood. 

Linden  family,  Tiliaceae ;  see  Basswood. 

Linn ;   see  Basswood. 

Liverwort,  Hepatica  triloba.     Pollen. 

Locust,  Robinia  Pseudacacia  (Fig.  154).  Tree  to  80  feet,  flowers 
white,  fragrant,  in  drooping  racemes.  May-June.  Honey 
white,  fine  flavor,  heavy  body.  Pennsylvania  south  to  Georgia 
and  west  to  Iowa.  There  are  six  species  of  Robinia  native  to 
America,  of  special  value  as  honey-plants  where  white  clover  is 
not  dependable,  usually  furnishes  nectar  for  about  ten  days  only. 

Locust ;  see  also  Honey  Locust. 

Logwood,  Hcematoxylum  campechianum.  In  Jamaica  this  produces 
a  honey  of  superb  quality  and  color.  Native  of  tropical 
America  and  West  Indies. 

Loosestrife,  Lysimachia  vulgaris.     Pollen. 

Lophiola,  Lophiola  americana.  Pine  barren  bogs,  eastern  United 
States,  June-August. 

Loranthaceae ;   see  Mistletoe  family. 

Lucern ;   see  Alfalfa. 

Lupine,  Lupinus  spp.     Nectarless,  visited  for  pollen. 

Lupinus  affinis.     Reported  from  California  as  a  nectar  plant. 

Madder  family,  Rubiaceae ;  see  Button-bush. 

Magnolia,  Magnolia  spp.     Not  important. 

Magnolia  family,  Magnoliacese ;  see  Magnolia  and  Tulip  Poplar. 

Magnoliaceae ;   see  Magnolia  family. 

Malaceae ;   see  Apple  family. 

Mallow,  Malva  spp.     Some  nectar,  pollen. 

Mallow  family,  Malvaceae ;   see  Marshmallow,  Mallow,  Cotton  and 

Sida  spp. 
Malvaceae ;   see  Mallow  family. 
Manazanillo ;   see  Manchineel. 
Manchineel,  manazanillo,    Hippomane  Mandnella.     Important  in 

southern  Florida. 
Manzanita,  bearberry,  Arctostaphylos  sp.     Shrub  or  small  tree, 

November-February.     Foothills     of     western     slope     (2000- 

9000  feet),  California.     Honey  amber  (or  white)  of  excellent 

flavor. 
Maple  family,  Aceracese ;   see  Maples. 
Maples,  Acer  spp.     Nectar,  especially  pollen. 
Marshmallow,  Althaea  spp.     Nectar,  unimportant. 
Meadow-rue,  Thalictrum  spp.     Pollen. 
Meadow  sweet,  Spircea  latifolia.     Some  nectar. 
Melia  family,  Meliaceae ;  see  China- tree. 
Meliaceae ;  see  Melia  family. 

2c 


386  Beekeeping 

Menthaceae ;  see  Mint  family. 

Mesquite,  Prosopis  glandulosa.  Shrub  and  tree,  flowers  in  dense 
spikes,  seed  in  constricted  pods.  April  and  June-July. 
Honey  light  amber,  of  good  flavor.  Fifteen  species  in  tropical 
regions.  P.  glandulosa  is  of  value  as  a  honey-plant  in  the  semi- 
arid  regions  of  Texas,  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  extending 
into  Mexico.  P.  juliflora,  introduced  from  Mexico,  is  the 
chief  floral  nectar  source  in  Hawaii  (called  algaroba,  keawe), 
honey  white,  granulates  quickly.  This  species  is  also  found  in 
Peru  and  has  recently  been  introduced  to  Porto  Rico.  P. 
velutina  and  P.  puhescens,  April-July  reported  from  Arizona. 

Milkweed,  Asclepias  spp.  Various  species  of  value,  especially 
those  in  swamps.  Pollen  masses  adhere  to  bees,  sometimes 
making  them  incapable  of  flight.  Butterfly  weed,  pleurisy- 
root,  A.  tuber osa,  especially  valuable. 

Milkweed  family.     Asclepiadacese ;   see  Milkweed. 

Mimosa  spp.     Tropical  and  subtropical.     Probably  of  value. 

Mimosa  family,  Mimosacese ;  see  Acacia,  Mesquite,  Guava,  Saman 
and  Mimosa  spp. 

Mimosaceae ;   see  Mimosa  family. 

Mint,  Mentha  spp.     Honey  amber,  of  value  locally. 

Mint  family,  Menthaceae ;  see  Blue-curls,  Horehound,  Catnip, 
Sages,  Horsemint,  Pennyroyal,  Bee  Balm,  Creeping  Thyme 
and  Mint.     An  important  family. 

Mistletoe,  Phoradendron  spp.  Parasitic,  December-January, 
Texas,  California,  earliest  source  of  nectar  in  Texas. 

Mistletoe  family,  Loranthaceae ;    see  Mistletoe. 

Moca,  cabbage  tree,  Geoffrcea  jamaicensis.  Of  marked  value.  West 
Indies,  tropical  America. 

Moraceae ;  see  Mulberry  family. 

Morong,     red-root,     Gyroiheca     capitata.     Pine     barrens. 

Mountain  laurel,  Kalmia  spp.  Valuable  locally,  Allegheny  Moun- 
tains. 

Mulberry,  Morus  spp.     Pollen. 

Mulberry  family,  Moraceae ;   see  Mulberry,  Hop  and  Hemp. 

Mullen,  Verbascum  spp.     Pollen,  nectar  in  some  species. 

Musaceae ;   see  Banana  family. 

Mustard ;   see  Rape. 

Mustard  family,  Cruciferse;  see  Rape  and  Radish.  Numerous 
species  of  this  family  are  valuable  but  are  not  of  primary 
importance. 

Myricaceae ;   see  Bayberry  family. 

Myrtaceae ;  see  Eucalyptus  family. 

Oak,  Quercus  spp.     Pollen,  some  nectar. 


The  Sources  of  Nectar  and  Pollen  387 

Oleaceae ;  see  Olive  family. 

Olive,  Olea  europcea.     April-May,  California,  value  doubtful. 

Olive  family,  Oleaceae ;  see  Ash,  Privet  and  Olive. 

Onagraceae ;   see  Evening  Primrose  family. 

Onion,  Allium  Cepa.     Nectar.     Valuable  where  abundant. 

Orange  ;   see  Citrus  Fruits. 

Orchid  family,   Orchidacese.     Usually  adapted  to  larger  insects. 

Some  pollen. 
Orchidaceae ;   see  Orchid  family. 

Palm  family,   Palmacese;    see  Cabbage  Palmetto,  Saw  Palmetto, 
Date  Palm,  Royal  Palm  and 
Cocoanut  Palm. 

Palmaceae ;  see  Palm  family. 

Paloverde,  Cercidium  torreyanum. 
Reported  as  valuable  in  Ari- 
zona, May. 

Papaveraceae ;   see  Poppy  family. 

Partridge  pea,  Chamcecrista  fasci- 
culata  (Fig.  155).  Annual 
herb,  1-2 1  feet,  leaves  sensi- 
tive, flowers  yellow,  solitary 
or  in  small  clusters.  Nec- 
taries on  petioles.  July- 
September.  Honey  light 
amber,  body  thin,  flavor  not 
good,  of  value  only  for  bak- 
ing.    Maine  to  Florida,  west 

to  Kansas    and  Texas,    but  Fig.  155.  —  Partridge  pea. 

valuable  as  a  producer  of 
surplus  only  in  Georgia  and  Florida.  The  species  of  this 
genus  are  not  nectar  yielders,  except  such  as  have  extra-floral 
nectaries,  from  which  nectar  is  quickly  washed  out  in  rainy 
weather. 

Pea  family,  Leguminosse.  This  family  contains  many  species  of 
the  highest  importance  to  beekeepers.  The  honeys  are  usually 
white.  See  Lupines,  Lupinus  affinis,  Alfalfa,  Sweet  Clover, 
White  Clover,  Alsike  Clover,  Crimson  Clover,  Wild  Alfalfa, 
Locust,  Moca,  Bush  Clover,  Vetches,  Lima  Bean  and  Cowpea. 

Peach,  Prunus  persica.     Nectar,  pollen. 

Pear,  Pyrus  spp.     Nectar,  pollen. 

Pecan,  Carya  sp.     Pollen. 

Pennyroyal,  Hedeoma  pulegioides.  Annual,  eastern  United  States, 
July-September.  Four  species  in  Florida  of  value  locally, 
January-February. 


388  Beekeeping 

Pepper  tree,  Schinus  Molle.  Southern  California,  introduced. 
Regular  producer  of  nectar.     Honey  amber,  strong  flavor. 

Persimmon,  Diospyros  virginiana.  Tree  to  100  feet,  May-June, 
eastern  United  States. 

Phacelia  hispida  and  P.  tanacetifolia.  Of  value  in  California. 
Honey  of  P.  hispida  granulates  quickly.  Species  of  Phacelia 
valued  by  beekeepers  in  Europe. 

Plantaginaceae ;   see  Plantain  family. 

Plantain,  Plantago  spp.     Pollen. 

Plantain  family,  Plantaginaceae  ;  see  Plantain. 

Pleurisy-root ;   see  Milkweed. 

Plums,  Prunus  spp.     Cultivated  and  various  wild  species.     Spring. 

Polygonaceae ;   see  Buckwheat  family. 

Polygonum  lapathifolium  and  P.  punctatum  are  of  value  in  Cali- 
fornia. 

Poma  rosa ;  see  Rose  Apple. 

Poplar ;   see  Tulip  Poplar. 

Poplars,  Populus  spp.     Pollen. 

Poppy>  Papaver  spp.     Pollen. 

Poppy  family,  Papaveracese ;  see  Poppy,  Prickly  Poppy,  Blood- 
root  and  California  Poppy. 

Potato  family,  Solanacese ;  see  Tobacco. 

Prickly  pear ;   see  Cactus. 

Prickly  poppy,  Argemone  platyceras,     Texas,  pollen,  May-July. 

Pride  of  India ;   see  China-tree. 

Primrose  family,  Primulaceae ;  see  Loosestrife. 

Primulaceae ;   see  Primrose  family. 

Privet,  Ligustrum  spp.     Not  important. 

Pumpkin ;   see  Gourd  family. 

Purple  medic ;  see  Alfalfa. 

Purple  sage ;  see  Sage. 

Radish,  Raphanus  sativus.     Pollen,  nectar. 

Ragweed,  Ambrosia  elatior.     Annual  herb,  1-6  feet,  July  to  frost, 

flowers    in    racemes,    green.     Throughout    United    States,    a 

troublesome   weed.     An   important   source   of   pollen,    yields 

no  nectar. 
Ragweed  family,  Ambrosiacese ;   see  Ragweed  and  Cocklebur. 
Ranunculaceae ;  see  Crowfoot  family. 

Rape,  mustard,    Brassica    spp.     Pollen    and    nectar.     Especially 
'  valuable  in  California  {B.  nigra).     Honey  granulates  rapidly. 
Raspberry,  blackberry,  Rubus  spp.     Various  species  of  value. 
Raspberry ;  see  also  Wild  Raspberry. 
Rattan   vine,    Berchemia   scandens.     Some   surplus.     Honey   dark 

amber,  April,  Texas. 


The  Sources  of  Nectar  and  Pollen  389 

Red   bay,    Persea   borhonia.     Southeastern  United   States,   April- 
June. 
Redbud ;  see  Judas  Tree. 
Red  clover ;  see  White  Clover. 
Red-root ;  see  Morong. 
Rhamnaceae ;  see  Buckthorn  family. 
Rhododendron,   Rhododendron  spp.     Valuable  locally,  Allegheny 

Mountains. 
Rock  brush ;  see  Eysenhardtia. 
Rockrose,  frostweed,  Helianthemum  spp.     Pollen. 
Rockrose  family,  Cistaceae ;  see  Rockrose. 
Rocky  Mountain  bee-plant ;   see  Cleome. 
Rosaceae ;   see  Rose  family. 

Rose  apple,  poma  rosa,  Caryophyllus  jamhos.     Tropical,  of  value. 
Rose  family,  Rosaceae ;  see  Meadow  SAveet,  Raspberry,  Blackberry, 

Wild     Raspberry,     Greasewood, 

Strawberry,     Roses,    Plum    and 

Peach. 
Roses,  Rosa  spp.     Pollen  only. 
Royal  palm,  Roystonea  spp.     Honey 

amber.    West    Indies.      Secretes 

heavily. 
Rubiaceae ;  see  Madder  family. 
Rue    family,    Rutacese;     see    Citrus 

Fruits. 
Rutaceae ;   see  Rue  family. 


Sage  brush,  Artemisia  calif ornica. 
Valuable  for  pollen,  southern 
California. 

Sages,  Ramona  spp.  (Also  classified 
as  Audibertia  spp.  and  Salvia 
spp.)  Plants  of  California  species 
vary  in  size  up  to  10  feet. 
April-July.  Honey  "  water- 
white,"  granulating  least  quickly 
of  any  American  honeys,  flavor 
mild  and  delicious.  The  semi- 
arid  regions  of  southern  California  Fig.  156.  —  Bu;tton  sage, 
in  canons  to  5000  feet  (Richter). 

The  black,  ball  or  button  sage,  R.  stachyoides  (Fig.  156),  is 
perhaps  the  most  important,  although  white  sage,  R.  polysta- 
chya  (Fig.  157),  and  purple  sage,  R.  nivea,  are  valuable. 
These  plants  require  about  twenty  inches  of  rainfall  in  late 
winter  followed  by  warm  spring,  free  from  fogs,  to  produce 


390 


Beekeeping 


Fig.  157.  —  White  sage. 


best  results.     When  at  their  best  these  plants  equal  any  other 
species  in  nectar  secretion,  but  failures  in  crop  are  common. 

The  sage  worm  (Platyptilia  mar- 
marodactyla)  does  considerable 
damage  to  the  button  sage,  de- 
stroying the  nectaries,  especially  in 
cloudy  weather.  Britton  and 
Brown  list  seven  species  of  Salvia 
for  the  eastern  United  States  and 
state  that  there  are  twenty-five 
other  species  in  the  United  States. 
Richter  lists  seven  other  species  as 
California  honey-plants. 

John's- wort,     Hypericum      spp. 
Pollen. 

John's-wort  family,   Hypericaceae ; 
see  St.  John's-wort. 
Salicaceae ;   see  Willow  family. 
Saman,  algaroba,  Pithecolohium  Saman. 
West  Indies,  Central  and  South  America. 
Saw  palmetto,  Sabal  megacarpa.     To  7  feet,  May,  honey  amber, 

thick.     Florida. 
Scrophulariaceae ;   see  Figwort  family. 
Sedge  family,  Cyperacese ;  see  Tule. 
Senna     family,     Caesalpinacese;     see 
Judas  Tree,  Partridge  Pea,  Honey 
Locust,  Eysenhardtia,  Paloverde 
and  Logwood. 
Service  berry ;  see  Juneberry. 
Sida  spp.     Tropical,  listed  for  Hawaii. 
Simarubaceae ;   see  Ailanthus  family. 
Simpson's    honey-plant,   Scrophularia 
vernalis.     This  common  name  is 
used     only     among     American 
beekeepers.    The  species  is  native 
of    southern    Europe    and    was 
formerly   cultivated   for  bees   in 
parts  of   the  United  States,  but 
without    profit.      Nectar    abun- 
dant.      Other   species   of    Scro- 
phularia are  good  honey-plants. 
Smartweed ;  see  Heartsease. 
Solanaceae ;   see  Potato  family. 
Sorghum,  Holcus  halepensis.     Pollen. 
Sorrel-tree ;  see  Sourwood. 


Fig.  158.  —  Sourwood. 


The  Sources  of  Nectar  and  Pollen  391 

Sour  clover ;  see  White  Clover. 

Sour  gum ;  see  Tupelo. 

Sourwood,  sorrel-tree,  Oxydendrum  arhoreum  (Fig.  158).  Tree  to 
60  feet,  flowers  white  in  numerous  racemes,  June- July.  Honey 
light  in  color,  granulates  slowly.  In  dry  woods,  Pennsylvania 
to  Florida,  especially  in  Piedmont  region  and  lower  mountains. 
An  exceptionally  heavy  yielder,  little  affected  by  changes  in 
climatic  conditions,  nor  is  nectar  washed  out  by  rains. 

Sow  thistle,  Sonchus  oleraceus.     Some  nectar. 

Spanish  needle,  Bidens  spp.,  Coreopsis  spp.  The  numerous  species 
of  these  genera  are  variously  adapted  to  all  conditions  of  soil 
and  moisture,  but  the  swamp  species  are  most  important  to  the 
beekeeper.  Annual  or  perennial  herbs  to  several  feet,  ray 
flowers  yellow.  Autumn.  Honey  amber,  body  heavy,  flavor 
somewhat  pronounced,  granulates  slowly.  Bidens  involucrata^ 
native  of  middle  west,  is  abundant  (introduced)  in  the  Dela- 
ware River  bottoms  south  of  Philadelphia,  where  it  yields 
excessively.  B.  aristosa  is  the  species  reported  as  so  valuable 
in  the  Illinois  and  Mississippi  River  bottoms.  The  Kankakee 
Swamps  (northern  Indiana  and  Illinois)  contain  Spanish 
needle  in  abundance.  There  seems  to  be  considerable  confu- 
sion as  to  the  identification  of  the  various  species,  and  a  careful 
study  should  be  made  of  these  valuable  fall  flowers. 
The  common  name  Spanish  needle  is  the  one  usually  adopted  by 
beekeepers.  Tickseed,  sunflower,  beggar's  tick  and  bur- 
marigold  are  also  applied  to  various  species. 

Spanish  trefoil ;   see  Alfalfa. 

Spider-flower ;   see  Cleome. 

Spikeweed,  Centromadia  pungens.  Central  California,  formerly  a 
leading  source  of  honey,  now  being  superseded  by  other  plants. 

Squash ;   see  Gourd  family. 

Strawberry,  Fragaria  sp.     Nectar  in  some  localities. 

Sumac,  Rhus  glabra.  Shrub  to  20  feet,  flowers  yellowish  green  in 
dense  conical  panicles.  June-August.  Honey  amber  of  fine 
flavor  when  well  ripened.  Distributed  widely  in  moist  regions 
of  United  States,  yielding  a  surplus  in  New  England.  There 
are  several  species  of  Rhus  of  value  to  the  beekeeper.  Poison 
ivy,  R.  radicans,  yields  nectar. 

Sumac  family,  Anacardiaceae ;  see  Sumac,  Pepper  Tree  and  Hog 
Plum. 

Sunflower,  Helianthus  spp.  Nectar  often  abundant.  Jerusalem 
artichoke,  H.  tuherosus,  cultivated  for  edible  tubers  is  of  value 
in  moist  soil.      H.  annuus,  common  in  West. 

Sunflower ;  see  also  Spanish  Needle. 

Swamp  mahogany  gum ;  see  Eucalyptus. 


392 


Beekeeping 


Swedish  clover ;  see  Alsike  Clover. 

Sweet  clover,  Melilotus  alba  (Fig.  159),  M.  officinalis,  M.  indica. 
Biennial  herbs  {M.  indica,  annual),  3-10  feet.  Flowers  white 
in  M.  alba  and  yellow  in  other  two  species,  in  slender  racemes. 

June-September,     or     even 
later,       usually      in      July. 
Honey  slightly  green  in  color, 
flavor  described  as  like  cin- 
namon.    Throughout  United 
States,     usually     in     waste 
places  but    becoming    more 
common  as  a  forage  plant. 
Secretes      nectar     wherever 
grown.     Native  of  old  world. 
In  some  sections  (Kentucky, 
Utah)    this   plant  is  valued 
as    a     soil     renovator     (see 
Farmers'   Bulletin  No.  485, 
U.  S.   Department  of  Agri- 
culture).    White  sweet  clo- 
ver, M.  alba  (Fig.  159),  is  the 
most  common  species.     Seed 
is  now  offered  for  sale  annu- 
ally in  the  bee  journals.     It 
has  been    sown   extensively 
by  beekeepers  in  waste  places 
and     along     embankments.. 
Called  also  Bokhara  clover 
and  has  numerous  other  common  names.     Twenty  species,  all 
native  of  old  world.     M.  indica  more  abundant  in  far  west. 
Sweet-gale,  bayberry,  Myrica  spp.     Wind  pollinated,  some  pollen. 
Sweet  gum,  Liquidambar  Styraciflua.     A  source  of  abundant  prop- 
olis. 
Sweet  pepper  bush,  Clethra  alnifolia.     Shrub,  3-10  feet.     Honey 
light  amber,  good  body.     In  swampy  woods,  Maine  to  Florida, 
especially  near  coast,  July-August.     Of  special  value  in  New 
England  and  New  Jersey. 


Fig.  159.  —  Sweet  clover. 


Tartarian  honeysuckle,  Lonicera  tatarica.  Nectar,  important 
locally,  other  species  valuable  in  which  flowers  are  not  too  long 
for  bees  to  reach.  Bumble-bees  sometimes  pierce  tubes  of 
the  honeysuckle,  L.  Periclymenum,  to  obtain  nectar,  after 
which  honeybees  work  on  the  pierced  flowers. 

Thistle,  Carduus  spp.     Considerable  nectar. 

Thistle  family,   Compositse;   see  Iron-weed,  Boneset,   Goldeiirod, 


The  Sources  of  Nectar  and  Pollen 


393 


Asters,  Sunflower,  Spanish  Needle,  Sage  Brush,  Fireweed, 
Thistle,  Canada  Thistle  and  Spikeweed.  This  is  a  most 
important  family  from  the  standpoint  of  the  beekeeper. 

Thoroughwort ;   see  Boneset. 

Tickseed ;   see  Spanish  Needle. 

Tiliaceae ;   see  Linden  family. 

Ti-ti,  leatherwood,  iron-wood,  Cyrilla  racemiflora.  Evergreen  shrub 
to  35  feet,  flowers  small,  white  in  narrow  racemes.  May- 
July,  February-March  in  Florida.  Honey  red,  flavor  strong, 
good  only  for  baking.  Virginia  to  Florida  to  Texas,  of  value 
chiefly  in  Georgia  and  Florida.  Not  a  reliable  source,  as  the 
nectar  is  washed  out  by  rains,  which  are  frequent  during 
blooming  period  in  Florida.  Precedes  tupelo  in  Appalachicola 
region.  Black  ti-ti,  Cliftonia  sp.,  blooms  later  and  is  more 
reliable. 

Tobacco,  Nicotina  Tahacum.  Nectar  locally,  especially  in  Con- 
necticut, honey  fair. 

Tree  of  heaven ;   see  Ailanthus. 

Trumpet-creeper  family,  Bignoniacese ;  see  Catalpa  and  Desert 
Willow. 

Tule,  Scirpus  sp. 
Reported  as  a 
honey-plant 
from  interior 
valleys  of  Cal- 
ifornia ;  proba- 
bly incorrect. 

Tulip  or  yellow 
poplar,  poplar, 
white  wood, 
cucumber  tree, 
tulip  tree,  Li- 
riodendron  Tu- 
lipifera  (Fig. 
160).  Tree  to 
175  feet,  flow- 
ers 2  inches 
wide,  resem- 
bling tulips, 
greenish  yel- 
low,        orange 

inside.  May-June.  Honey  dark  amber,  of  pronounced 
flavor.  In  woods,  eastern  half  of  United  States.  Especially 
abundant  in  Ohio  Valley  and  southern  Appalachian  moun- 
tains.    An  unusually  heavy  and  reliable  yielder. 


Fig.  160.  —  Tulip  poplar. 


394 


Beekeeping 


Tulip  tree ;  see  Tulip  Poplar. 

Tupelo,  sour  gum,  Nyssa  spp.  Trees  to  100  feet,  leaves  oval  or 
acute  or  slightly  toothed  {N.  aquatica).  April-June.  Honey 
of  fine  quality,  light  amber,  rarely  granulating,  flavor  mild 
but  characteristic.  Swamps  of  eastern  United  States,  west  to 
Missouri  and  Texas,  especially  abundant  in  Florida,  Alabama 
and  Georgia.  The  honey  from  tupelos  is  of  especial  value  in 
blending  extracted-honeys  for  table  trade  because  of  its  slow- 
ness in  granulating.  There  are  four  species  of  Nyssa  of  value 
to  the  beekeeper.  Tupelo,  A'',  aquatica,  is  found  abundantly 
in  southern  swamps,  especially  along  the  Appalachicola  River. 
Secretes  so  abundantly  that  it  will  support  thousands  of 
colonies.  Sour  gum,  N.  sylvatica,  is  found  farther  north  and 
with  N.  hiflora  furnishes  abundant  nectar.  In  abundance  of 
nectar  these  trees  equal  the  basswood. 

Ulmaceae  ;   see  Elm  family. 
Umbelliferae ;  see  Carrot  family. 


Vacciniaceae 
Verbenaceae 


see  Huckleberry  family. 
see  Vervain  family. 


Vervain    family,    Verbenaceae 
Black  Mangrove. 


Fig.  161.  —  White  clover. 

Virginia   creeper,    Parthenocissus 
Vitaceae ;  see  Grape  family. 


see    Carpet    Grass,  Lantana   and 

Vetches,  Vicia  spp.  Nectar, 
pollen. 

Viper's  bugloss,  blueweed, 
blue-thistle,  Echium  vul- 
gare.  Biennial  herbs, 
1-2^  feet,  stem  erect 
bearing  numerous  blue 
to  purple  flowers,  stem 
hairy,  July-September 
and  later.  In  fields  and 
waste  land,  native  of 
Europe,  especially  abun- 
dant in  Virginia,  Mary- 
land and  Pennsylvania. 
The  common  name  blue- 
thistle  is  the  one  by 
which  beekeepers  usu- 
ally know  this  plant. 
An  important  source  in 
the  Shenandoah  Valley. 
quinquefolia.     Nectar,    pollen. 


The  Sources  of  Nectar  and  Pollen 


395 


Walnut  family,  Juglandacese ;   see  Black  Walnut,  English  Walnut, 
Hickory  and  Pecan. 

Water-leaf  family,  Hydrophyllaceae ;    see  Phacelia. 

Watermelon ;   see  Gourd  family. 

Wattles ;   see  Acacias. 

White  alder  family,  Clethracese ;   see  Sweet  Pepper  Bush. 

White  clover,  Trifolium  repens  (Fig.  161).  Perennial,  creeping 
branches  often  taking  root  at  nodes.  Blooms  from  May  on, 
but  especially  in  June- July,  when  it  is  especially  valuable. 
Honey  light  in  color,  granulates  slowly,  flavor  superb.  In 
pasture  lands  and  waste  places  in  moist  regions  of  United 
States  and  Canada.  Valuable  as  honey  source  chiefly  in  North 
and  East.  Not  cultivated,  thrives  in  limestone  regions. 
Native  of  Europe  and  introduced  into  United  States.  One  of 
the  most  important  sources.  May  be  considered  as  a  "  stand- 
ard "  for  comb-honey,  being  equaled  by  no  other  source  for 
this  type  of  honey.  Nectar- 
secretion  quickly  affected  by  ad- 
verse weather  conditions.  Honey 
often  mixed  with  basswood  in 
Michigan,  Wisconsin  and  adjoin- 
ing States.  Also  called  Dutch 
clover,  under  which  name  seed  is 
often  sold.  Other  species  of  Tri- 
folium are  also  valuable,  e.g.  sour 
clover,  T.  fucatum,  California. 
Red  clover,  T.  pratense,  usually 
has  a  corolla  tube  too  long  for  the 
honeybee  to  reach  the  nectar.  At 
times  bees  get  considerable  nectar 
from  this  source.  See  also  Crim- 
son Clover  and  Alsike  Clover. 

White  ironwood ;   see  Eucalyptus. 

White  lilac  and  others,  Ceanothus  spp. 
California,  February-May.  Nec- 
tar and  abundant  pollen. 

White  sage ;  see  Sage. 

Whitewood;  see  Basswood  and  also 
Tulip  Poplar. 

Wild  alfalfa,  Lotus  glaber.  June-Sep- 
tember, California. 

Wild  bergamot ;  see  Horsemint. 

Wild   buckwheat,    Eriogonum  fasciculatum.     Honey   light   amber, 
granulates  quickly.     April-November,  southern  California. 

Wild  honeysuckle  ;  see  Azalea. 


Fig.  162.  —  Willow-herb. 


396  Beekeeping 

Wild  raspberry,  Ruhus  strigosus.  Shrubs,  3-6  feet,  stems  with 
small  prickles.  May-July  or  later.  Honey  white,  flavor 
unsurpassed  by  that  of  any  other  honey.  In  dry  lands,  Canada 
south  in  mountains  to  North  Carolina  and  in  west  to  New 
Mexico,  to  5500  feet  in  North  Carolina.  Especially  valuable 
in  cut  or  burned  over  lands  in  northern  Michigan  and  noted 
in  parts  of  New  York.  This  is  said  to  be  the  original  of  the 
Cuthbert  red  raspberry  so  widely  cultivated.  Reliable  where 
abundant. 

Willow  family,  Salicacese;    see  Poplars  and  Willows. 

Willow-herb,  fireweed,  Chamcenerion  angustifolium  (Fig.  162). 
Perennial  herbs,  2-8  feet,  flowers  pink  to  purple  (rarely  white), 
in  spike-like  racemes.  Honey  white,  flavor  excellent,  not 
pronounced.  In  dry  soil,  especially  in  burned-over  forest 
lands.  Labrador  south  to  North  Carolina,  Kansas  and 
California,  but  especially  in  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota, 
Canada  and  Washington.  This  species  continues  in  bloom 
from  July  to  frost,  the  flowers  maturing  in  series  upward  on 
the  stem.     A  heavy  reliable  yielder. 

Willows,  Salix  spp.  Extraordinary  value  for  pollen,  some  nectar. 
Early  spring. 

Witchhazel  family,  Hamamelidacese ;    see  Sweet  Gum. 

Yellow  poplar ;  see  Tulip  Poplar. 

Yucca,    Hesperoyucca  Whipplei.     Semi-desert,  California. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
BEE  DISEASES  AND  ENEMIES 

The  honeybee  is  subject  to  several  diseases  which  are  at 
times  a  serious  handicap  to  the  industry.  Several  years  ago 
these  diseases  were  working  insidiously,  destroying  the 
industry  in  some  localities  and  constituting  a  serious  handi- 
cap elsewhere.  The  recent  agitation  on  this  subject  has, 
however,  brought  about  a  wider  knowledge  of  these  diseases 
and  they  are  losing  their  destructiveness  just  so  fast  as  the 
beekeepers  learn  how  to  recognize  them  and  how  to  treat 
diseased  colonies. 

The  diseases  of  bees  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  those 
affecting  the  brood  and  those  to  which  the  adult  bees  are 
subject.  The  diseases  of  the  brood  are  the  more  destructive 
and  more  is  known  concerning  their  causes,  distribution, 
symptoms  and  treatment. 

BROOD   DISEASES 

There  are  three  recognized  diseases  of  the  brood,  known  as 
American  foul  brood,  European  foul  brood  and  sacbrood  or 

Note.  Various  phases  of  the  investigation  of  the  brood  diseases 
are  reported  in  publications  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  to  which  the  reader  is  referred  for  additional  informa- 
tion. These  publications  deal  with  the  symptoms,  treatment, 
geographical  distribution  and  causes  of  the  diseases  as  well  as  the 
control  measures  provided  by  various  States  in  the  form  of  apiary 
inspection.  The  present  discussion  of  brood  diseases  is  largely 
drawn  from  the  author's  bulletin  "  The  Treatment  of  Bee  Diseases," 
Farmers'  Bulletin  442,  since  it  seems  useless  to  attempt  a  rear- 
rangement of  the  material  in  this  bulletin. 

397 


398 


Beekeeping 


pickled  brood.  These  diseases  weaken  colonies  by  reducing 
the  number  of  emerging  bees  needed  to  replace  the  adult  bees 
which  die  from  natural  causes.  The  adult  bees  are  not  known 
to  be  affected.  The  larvae  dead  of  these  diseases  show  cer- 
tain differences  in  appearance  which  are  useful  in  determin- 
ing which  disease  is  present.  These  diseases  are  entirely- 
distinct,  as  shown  by  these  differences  in  appearance,  by 
differences   in   response   to    treatment, 

the  larvae  affected  and   by 

There  is  no  evidence  that  chilled  or  starved 

brood    develops 


into  an  infectious 
disease  or  that 
dead  brood  favors 
the  development 
of  an  infectious 
disease. 


the  age  of 
amination. 


by    differences    in 
bacteriological  ex- 


FiG.  163.  —  American  foul  brood  :  a,  b,  f,  normal  sealed  cells ;  c,  j,  sunken 
cappings,  showing  perforation ;  g,  sunken  capping  not  perforated ;  h,  I, 
m,  n,  q,  r,  larvae  afifected  by  disease ;  e,  i,  p,  s,  scales  formed  from  dried- 
down  larvse ;  d,  o,  pupae  affected  by  disease.     Twice  natural  size. 


American  foul  brood. 

This  disease  (Fig.  163)  is  frequently  called  simply  "foul 
brood."  It  usually  shows  itself  in  the  larvse  just  about  the 
time  that  they  fill  the  cells  and  after  they  have  ceased  feed- 
ing and  have  begun  pupation.  At  this  time  the  larva  is 
sealed  over  in  the  comb  (Fig.  163,  a,  h,  /).  The  first  outward 
indication  of  the  infection  is  a  slight  brownish  discoloration 
and  the  loss  of  the  well-rounded  appearance  of  the  normal 
larva  (Fig.  163,  Z).  The  larva  gradually  sinks  down  in  the 
cell  and  becomes  darker  in  color  (Fig.  163,  h,  m)  and  the 
posterior  end  lies  against  the  bottom  of  the  cell.     Frequently 


Bee  Diseases  and  Enemies 


399 


the  segmentation  of  the  larva  is  clearly  marked.  By  the 
time  it  has  partially  dried  down  and  has  become  quite  dark 
brown  (coffee  colored)  the  most  typical  characteristic  of  this 
disease  manifests  itself. 
If  a  match  stick  or 
tooth-pick  is  inserted 
into  the  decaying  mass 
and  withdrawn,  the 
larval  remains  adhere  to 
it  and  are  drawn  out 
in  a  thread  (Fig.  164), 
which  sometimes  ex- 
tends for  several  inches  before  breaking.  This  ropi- 
ness  is  the  chief  characteristic  used  by  the  beekeeper  in  di- 
agnosing this  disease.     The  larva  continues  to  dry  down 


Fig, 


164.  —  The   ropiness    of    American 
foul  brood. 


Fig.  165.  —  American  foul  brood  comb,  showing  irregular  patches  of  sunken 
cappings  and  scales.  The  position  of  the  comb  indicates  the  best  way 
to  view  the  scales. 


and  gradually  loses  its  ropiness  until  it  finally  becomes  merely 
a  scale  on  the  lower  side  wall  and  base  of  the  cell  (Fig.  163,  6, 
p,  s).  The  scale  formed  by  the  dried-down  larva  adheres 
tightly  to  the  cell  and  can  be  removed  with  difficulty  from 


400 


Beekeeping 


the  cell  wall.  The  scales  can  best  be  observed  when  the 
comb  is  held  with  the  top  inclined  toward  the  observer  so 
that  a  bright  light  strikes  the  lower  side  wall  (Fig.  165).  A 
characteristic  and  usually  penetrating  odor  is  often  notice- 
able in  the  decaying  larvae.  This  can  best  be  likened  to  the 
odor  of  heated  glue. 

The  larger  part  of  the  larvae  which  die  of  this  disease  are 
attacked  after  being  sealed  in  the  cells.     The  cappings  are 


Fig.  166.  —  Apiary  in  southern  California  which  was  practically  destroyed 
by  disease.  When  this  apiary  was  visited  by  the  author  in  1908,  only 
15  colonies  were  seemingly  free  from  American  foul  brood  in  the 
151  hives.  After  treatment  only  14  colonies  were  saved.  This  devas- 
tation had  occurred  in  two  seasons. 


often  entirely  removed  by  the  bees,  but  when  they  are  left 
they  usually  become  sunken  (Fig.  163,  gf,  c,  j)  and  frequently 
perforated  (Fig.  163,  c,  j).  As  the  healthy  brood  emerges 
the  comb  shows  the  scattered  sunken  cappings  covering  dead 
larvae  (Fig.  165),  giving  it  a  characteristic  appearance. 
Pupae  also  may  die  of  this  disease,  in  which  case  they  too  dry 
down  (Fig.  163,  o,  d),  become  ropy  and  have  the  character- 
istic odor  and  color.  The  tongue  frequently  adheres  to  the 
upper  side  wall  and  often  remains  there  even  after  the  pupa 


Bee  Diseases  and  Enemies 


401 


has  dried  down  to  a  scale.  Younger  unsealed  larvae  are 
sometimes  affected.  Usually  the  disease  attacks  only  worker 
brood,  but  occasional  cases  are  found  in  which  queen  and 
drone  brood  are  diseased.  It  is  not  certain  that  race  of  bees, 
season,  or  climate  have  any  effect  on  the  virulence  of  this 
disease,  except  that  in  warmer  climates,  where  the  breeding 
season  is  prolonged,  the  rapidity  of  devastation  (Fig.  166)  is 
more  marked.    Cause,  Bacillus  larvce. 

European  foul  brood. 

This  disease  (Fig.  167)  was  formerly  called  "black  brood." 

It  usually  attacks  the  larva  at  an  earlier  stage  of  its  develop- 
ment than  American 
foul  brood  and  while  it 
is  still  curled  up  at  the 
base  of  the  cell  (Fig. 
167,  r).  A  small  per- 
centage  of  larvse   dies 


Fig.  167.  —  European  foul  brood  :  a,  j,  k,  normal  sealed  cells ;  b,  c,  d,  e,  g, 
i,  I,  m,  p,  q,  larvae  affected  by  disease ;  r,  normal  larva  at  age  attacked 
by  disease  ;  /,  h,  n,  o,  dried-down  larvae  or  scales.     Twice  natural  size. 

after  capping,  but  sometimes  quite  young  larvse  are  at- 
tacked (Fig.  167,  e,  m).  Sunken  and  perforated  cappings 
are  sometimes  observed  just  as  in  American  foul  brood 
(Fig.  163,  c,  g,  j).  The  earliest  indication  of  the  disease  is  a 
slight  yellow  or  gray  discoloration  and  uneasy  movement  of 
the  larva  in  the  cell.  The  larva  loses  its  well-rounded,  opaque 
appearance  and  becomes  slightly  translucent,  so  that  the 
tracheae  may  become  prominent  (Fig.  167,  6),  giving  the 
larvae  a  clearly  segmented  appearance.  The  larva  is  usually 
flattened  against  the  base  of  the  cell  but  may  turn  so  that  the 
ends  of  the  larva  are  to  the  rear  of  the  cell  (Fig.  167,  p)  or 
2d 


402  Beekeeping 

may  fall  away  from  the  base  (Fig.  167,  e,  g,  l).  Later  the 
color  changes  to  a  decided  yellow  or  gray  and  the  translu- 
cency  is  lost  (Fig.  167,  q,  h).  The  yellow  color  may  be  taken 
as  the  chief  characteristic  of  this  disease.  The  dead  larva 
appears  as  a  moist,  somewhat  collapsed  mass,  giving  the 
appearance  of  being  melted.  When  the  remains  have  become 
almost  dry  (Fig.  167,  c)  the  tracheae  sometimes  become  con- 
spicuous again,  this  time  by  retaining  their  shape,  while  the 
rest  of  the  body  content  dries  around  them.  Finally  all 
that  is  left  of  the  larva  is  a  grayish-brown  scale  against  the 
base  of  the  cell  (Fig.  167,  /,  h)  or  a  shapeless  mass  on  the 
lower  side  wall  if  the  larva  did  not  retain  its  normal  position 
(Fig.  167,  n,  o).  Very  few  scales  are  black.  The  scales  are 
not  adhesive  but  are  easily  removed  and  the  bees  carry  out 
a  great  many  in  their  efforts  to  clean  house. 

Decaying  larvae  which  have  died  of  this  disease  are  usually 
not  ropy  as  in  American  foul  brood  but  a  slight  ropiness  is 
sometimes  observed.  There  is  usually  little  odor  in  Eu- 
ropean foul  brood,  but  sometimes  in  bad  cases  a  sour  odor  is 
present,  which  reminds  one  of  yeast  fermentation.  This 
disease  attacks  drone  and  queen  larvae  almost  as  quickly  as 
those  of  the  workers. 

European  foul  brood  is  more  destructive  during  the  spring 
and  early  summer  than  at  other  times,  often  entirely  disap- 
pearing during  late  summer  and  autumn  or  during  a  heavy 
honey-flow.  Italian  bees  seem  to  be  better  able  to  resist 
the  ravages  of  this  disease  than  any  other  race.  The  disease 
at  times  spreads  with  startling  rapidity  and  is  most  destruc- 
tive. Where  it  is  prevalent  a  considerably  larger  percentage 
of  colonies  is  affected  than  is  usual  for  American  foul  brood. 
This  disease  is  variable  in  its  symptoms  and  other  manifes- 
tations and  is  often  a  puzzle  to  the  beekeeper.  Cause, 
Bacillus  pluton. 

Sacbrood  or  pickled  brood. 

In  this  disease  the  larva  dies  about  the  time  of  seahng. 
It  usually  lies  on  its  back  with  the  head  turned  upward. 


Bee  Diseases  and  Enemies  403 

The  color  varies,  but  is  frequently  light  yellow  or  brown 
and  the  head  is  often  almost  black.  The  body  is  swollen 
and  the  contents  watery  and  the  head  may  be  quite  hard. 
There  is  no  ropiness.  This  disease  is  usually  not  the  cause 
of  any  serious  loss  in  the  apiary  and  as  a  rule  no  treatment 
is  necessary.  The  most  serious  aspect  of  this  disease  is 
that  it  is  often  mistaken  for  European  foul  brood  or  American 
foul  brood  and  the  colony  is  treated  accordingly.  The 
cause  is  a  filterable  virus. 

Methods  of  spread. 

Since  all  three  of  these  diseases  are  infectious  they  are 
spread  in  much  the  same  way.  It  has  long  been  recognized 
that  it  is  unsafe  to  feed  honey  from  a  diseased  colony  and 
probably  most  cases  are  due  to  the  carrying  of  the  virus  in 
honey,  as  in  robbing  or  feeding.  It  is  well,  therefore,  to  prac- 
tice the  following  precautionary  measures  : 

(1)  Do  not  allow  weak  colonies  to  be  robbed  out. 

(2)  Never  feed  honey  purchased  on  the  open  market. 

(3)  If  possible  keep  all  honey  from  diseased  apiaries  out 
of  the  neighborhood. 

(4)  In  introducing  purchased  queens,  transfer  them  to 
clean  cages  and  destroy  the  old  cage,  candy  and  accompany- 
ing workers. 

(5)  Colonies  of  bees  should  never  be  purchased  unless  it 
is  certain  that  they  are  free  from  disease. 

(6)  The  purchase  of  old  combs  and  second-hand  supplies 
is  dangerous  unless  it  is  certain  that  they  come  from  healthy 
apiaries. 

Treatment. 

The  treatment  of  an  infectious  bee  disease  consists  pri- 
marily in  the  eUmination  or  removal  of  the  cause  of  the 
disease.  In  treating  a  disease,  therefore,  the  aim  of  the 
manipulation  is  to  remove  or  destroy ^all  the  virus  causing 
the  disease.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the  effort  is 
not  to  save  the  larvae  that  are  already  dead  or  dying  but  to 


404  Beekeeping 

stop  the  further  devastation  of  the  disease  by  removing  all 
material  capable  of  transmitting  the  cause  of  the  trouble. 
In  all  of  the  operations  great  pains  should  be  taken  not  to 
spread  the  disease  through  carelessness.  After  handling  a 
diseased  colony,  the  hands  of  the  operator  should  be  washed 
with  water  to  remove  any  honey  that  may  be  on  them.  It 
does  not  pay  to  treat  colonies  that  are  considerably  weakened 
by  disease.  In  case  there  are  several  such  colonies  they 
should  be  united  to  form  strong,  vigorous  colonies  before  or 
during  treatment. 

Shaking  treatment. 

The  treatment  consists  essentially  in  the  removl.1  of  all  in- 
fected material  from  the  colony  and  in  compelling  the  colony 
to  take  a  fresh  start  by  building  new  combs  and  by  gather- 
ing fresh  stores.  This  is  done  by  shaking  the  adult  bees 
from  the  old  combs  into  a  clean  hive  on  clean  frames. 

The  shaking  treatment  should  be  given  during  a  flow  of 
honey,  so  that  other  bees  in  the  apiary  will  not  be  inclined 
to  rob.  If  this  is  not  possible  the  operation  may  be  performed 
under  a  tent  made  of  mosquito  netting  or  a  wire-cloth  cage. 
The  best  time  is  during  the  middle  of  a  clear  day  when  a  large 
number  of  bees  are  in  the  field. 

All  implements  that  will  be  needed,  such  as  queen  and 
drone  trap,  hive  tool  and  lighted  smoker,  should  be  in 
readiness  before  the  operation  is  begun.  A  complete  clean 
hive  with  frames  is  provided,  as  well  as  a  tightly  closed  hive- 
body  in  which  to  put  the  contaminated  combs  after  shaking. 
An  extra  hive  cover  or  some  similar  apparatus  should  be 
provided  to  serve  as  a  runway  for  the  bees  as  they  enter 
the  new  hive.  The  new  frames  should  contain  strips  of 
comb-foundation  from'  one-fourth  to  one  inch  wide.  Full 
sheets  are  not  desirable  and  if  combs  built  on  full  sheets  of 
foundation  are  desired  they  may  be  built  later. 

The  old  hive  containing  the  diseased  colony  (Fig.  168,  A) 
is  now  lifted  to  one  side  out  of  the  flight  of  returning  field 
bees  and  the  clean  hive  {E)  set  exactly  in  its  p'ace.     The  cover 


Bee  Diseases  and  Enemies 


405 


(G)  is  now  taken  off  and  a  few  frames  (E)  removed  from  the 
center  of  the  hive.  If  unspaced  frames  are  used,  those  remain- 
ing in  the  hive  should  be  pushed  tightly  to  either  side  of  the 
hive,  thus  making  a  barrier  beyond  which  the  bees  cannot 
crawl  as  they  move  to  the  top  of  the  hive  after  shaking.  This 
largely  prevents  them  from  getting  on  the  outside  of  the 
hive.  If  self -spacing  frames  are  used,  a  couple  of  thin  boards 
laid  on  the  top-bars  on  either  side  will  accomplish  the  same 
result.  The  runway  (D)  is  put  in  place  in  front  of  the  en- 
trance. The  old  hive  is  now  opened  for  the  first  time.  The 
frames  are  removed  one  at  a  time,  lowered  part  way  into  the 


Fig.  168. — Apparatus  for  the  shaking  treatment:  A,  hive  containing 
diseased  colony  (formerly  in  position  oi  B) ;  B,  clean  hive ;  C,  empty 
hive  to  receive  combs  after  shaking ;  D,  hive  cover  used  as  runway ; 
E,  frames  removed  from  B  to  give  room  for  shaking ;  F,  queen  and 
drone  trap ;  G,  cover  for  clean  hive,  B. 


new  hive  and,  with  a  quick  downward  shake,  the  bees  are 
dislodged.  The  frames  are  then  put  into  the  extra  hive-body 
(C)  and  immediately  covered  to  prevent  robbing.  After 
all  the  frames  are  shaken  the  bees  remaining  on  the  sides  of 
the  old  hive  (A)  are  shaken  out. 

If  honey  is  coming  in  freely,  so  that  thin  honey  is  shaken 
out  of  the  combs,  cover  the  runway  (D)  with  newspapers 
and  shake  the  bees  in  front  of  the  new  hive  (B),  leaving  all 
frames  in  place  and  the  cover  on.  After  the  operation  the 
soiled  newspapers  should  be  destroyed.  In  shaking  in  front 
of  the  entrance  the  first  one  or  two  frames  should  be  so  shaken 
that  the  bees  are  thrown  against  the  entrance,  where  they  can 


406 


Beekeeping 


locate  the  hive  quickly.  They  then  fan  their  wings  and  the 
others  follow  them  into  the  hive.  If  this  is  not  done  the  bees 
may  wander  about  and  get  under  the  hive  or  in  some  other 
undesirable  place. 

After  the  bees  are  mostly  in  the  new  hive  a  queen  and 
drone  trap  {F)  or  a  strip  of  perforated  zinc  is  placed  over 
the  entrance  to  prevent  the  colony  from  deserting  the  hive. 
The  old  combs  are  now  quickly  removed.  If  several 
colonies  are  being  treated  at  one  time  it  may  pay  to  stack 
several  hive-bodies  containing  contaminated  combs  over  a 
weak  diseased  colony  to  allow  most  of  the  healthy  brood  to 
emerge,  thereby  strengthening  the  weak  colony.  After  ten 
or  twelve  days  this  colony  is  treated 
in  turn  and  all  the  combs  are  rendered 
into  wax. 

An  apiary  of  any  size  should  have 
included  in  its  equipment  a  wax  press 
(p.  335)  for  removing  wax  from  old 
combs.  After  the  contaminated  frames 
are  taken  to  the  honey-house  the  combs 
should  be  kept  carefully  covered,  so 
that  no  bees  can  reach  them  until  the 
wax  can  be  rendered.  This  should 
not  be  delayed  very  long  or  the 
combs  may  be  ruined  by  wax-moths. 
The  slumgum  or  refuse  remaining  after  the  wax  is  re- 
moved should  be  burned  as  it  is  usually  not  sterihzed  in 
the  rendering  of  the  wax.  Contaminated  combs  should 
not  be  put  into  a  solar  wax  extractor  for  fear  of  spreading 
the  disease.  The  wax  from  contaminated  combs  may  safely 
be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  comb-foundation. 

The  hive  which  has  contained  the  diseased  colony  should 
be  thoroughly  cleaned  of  all  wax  and  honey,  and  it  is  desirable 
that  it  be  carefully  disinfected  by  burning  out  the  inside  with 
a  gasoline  blue-flame  torch  (Fig.  169).  If  this  piece  of  ap- 
paratus is  not  available,  several  hive-bodies  may  be  piled 
together  on  a  hive  bottom  and  some  gasoHne  or  kerosene 


Fig.  169.  —  Gasoline  torch. 


Bee  Diseases  and  Enemies  407 

poured  on  the  sides  and  on  some  straw  or  excelsior  placed 
at  the  bottom  of  the  pile.  This  is  then  ignited  and  after 
burning  for  a  few  seconds  a  close-fitting  hive  cover  is  placed 
on  top  of  the  pile  to  extinguish  the  flames.  The  inside  of 
the  hive-bodies  should  be  charred  to  a  light  brown.  The 
careful  cleaning  and  disinfection  of  frames  always  costs  con- 
siderably more  in  labor  than  Aow  frames  would  cost,  but  these 
also  may  be  carefully  cleaned  and  used  again.  Frames  may 
be  cleaned  by  boiUng  in  water  for  about  half  an  hour,  but 
this  frequently  causes  them  to  warp  badly.  The  disinfection 
of  hives  and  frames  with  chemicals  is  not  recommended. 

If  there  is  a  considerable  quantity  of  honey  in  the  con- 
taminated combs  it  may  be  extracted.  This  honey  is  not 
safe  to  feed  to  bees  without  boiling,  but  it  is  absolutely  safe 
for  human  consumption.  If  there  is  a  comparatively  small 
quantity  it  may  be  consumed  in  the  beekeeper's  family, 
care  being  taken  that  none  of  it  is  placed  so  that  the  bees 
can  ever  get  it. 

To  put  such  honey  on  the  market  is  contrary  to  law  in 
some  states.  There  is  always  danger  that  an  emptied  re- 
ceptacle will  be  thrown  out  where  bees  can  have  access  to  it, 
thus  causing  a  new  outbreak  of  disease.  It  can  be  safely 
used  for  feeding  to  bees  in  summer,  provided  it  is  diluted 
with  at  least  an  equal  volume  of  water  to  prevent  burning 
and  boiled  in  a  closed  vessel  for  not  less  than  one-half  hour, 
counting  from  the  time  that  the  diluted  honey  first  boils 
vigorously.  The  honey  will  not  be  sterilized  if  it  is  heated 
in  a  vessel  set  inside  of  another  containing  water.  Boiled 
honey  should  not  be  sold  as  honey.  It  is  good  only  as  a 
food  for  bees  and  even  then  should  never  be  used  for  winter 
stores,  as  it  would  probably  cause  dysentery. 

Some  beekeepers  prefer  to  shake  the  bees  first  on  to  frames 
containing  strips  of  foundation  as  above  described  and  in 
four  days  to  shake  the  colony  a  second  time  on  to  full  sheets 
of  foundation,  destroying  all  comb  built  after  the  first  treat- 
ment. This  insures  better  combs  than  the  use  of  strips  of 
foundation,  but  it  is  a  severe  drain  on  the  strength  of  the 


408  Beekeeping 

colony.  Since  it  is  desirable  to  have  combs  built  on  full 
sheets,  the  best  policy  is  to  replace  any  irregular  combs  with 
full  sheets  of  foundation  or  good  combs  later  in  the  season. 
If  the  treatment  just  described  is  given  at  the  beginning 
of  a  good  honey-flow,  it  is  practically  equivalent  to  artificial 
swarming  (p.  283)  and  may  result  in  an  actual  increase  in 
the  surplus  honey,  especially  in  the  case  of  comb-honey 
production.  The  wax  rendered  from  the  combs  will  sell 
for  enough  to  pay  for  the  foundation  used  if  full  sheets  of 
foundation  are  employed.  If  treatment  must  be  given  at 
some  other  time,  so  that  the  colony  must  be  fed,  the  cost  is 
materially  increased.  In  feeding,  it  is  best  to  use  sugar  syrup 
or  honey  that  is  known  to  have  come  from  healthy  colonies. 

Fall  treatment. 

If  it  is  necessary  to  treat  a  colony  so  late  in  the  fall  that  it 
would  be  impossible  for  the  bees  to  prepare  for  winter  without 
assistance,  the  treatment  may  be  modified  by  shaking  the 
bees  on  to  combs  entirely  full  of  honey  so  that  there  is  no  place 
for  any  brood  to  be  reared.  This  will  usually  be  satisfactory 
only  after  brood-rearing  has  entirely  ceased.  Unless  a  colony 
is  quite  strong  it  does  not  pay  to  treat  in  the  fall,  but  it  should 
be  destroyed  or  united  with  another  colony.  In  case  a 
diseased  colony  dies  outdoors  in  the  winter,  there  is  danger 
that  other  bees  may  have  opportunity  to  rob  the  hive  before 
the  beekeeper  can  close  the  entrance.  In  case  bees  are 
wintered  in  the  cellar  it  is  more  advisable  to  risk  wintering 
before  treatment,  for  if  the  colony  does  die  the  hive  will  not 
be  robbed. 

Additional  treatment  for  European  foul  brood. 

Since,  as  stated  previously,  Italian  bees  seem  to  be  better 
able  to  withstand  European  foul  brood  than  are  other  races, 
it  is  recommended  that  apiaries  in  regions  where  this  disease  is 
prevalent  be  requeened  with  young,  vigorous  Italian  queens 
of  good  stock.  This  should  be  done  whether  or  not  the 
shaking  treatment  is  given. 


Bee  Diseases  and  Enemies  409 

It  has  been  found  that  the  removal  of  the  queen  and  the 
keeping  of  the  colony  queenless  for  a  period  often  results 
in  the  disappearance  of  European  foul  brood.  E.  W. 
Alexander,  who  advocated  this  method/  recommended  that 
the  colony  be  kept  queenless  (by  cutting  out  all  queen  cells 
at  the  end  of  nine  days)  for  a  period  of  twenty  days,  at 
which  time  a  cell  containing  a  queen  of  Italian  stock  ready  to 
emerge  is  to  be  given  to  the  colony.  The  young  queen 
will  thus  begin  to  lay  in  about  twenty-seven  days  after 
the  old  queen  has  been  removed,  or  in  at  least  three  days 
after  the  last  of  the  drone  brood  has  emerged.  Other 
writers  have  advocated  a  shorter  time. 

The  dequeening  treatment  is  not  always  successful  and  it 
is  therefore  recommended  that  care  be  exercised  in  trying 
it.  Since  there  is  a  considerable  percentage  of  successful 
results,  this  would  indicate  that  there  is  an  important 
principle  involved.  It  should  not  be  forgotten,  however, 
that  European  foul  brood  often  disappears  in  the  late 
summer  of  its  own  accord  if  the  case  is  not  severe,  and  it 
is  probable  that  in  many  of  the  cases  of  dequeening  re- 
ported as  successful  the  disease  would  have  disappeared 
without  the  treatment.  This  treatment  is  suggested  only 
for  the  experienced  beekeeper. 


DISEASES   OF   ADULT   BEES 

These  diseases  are  but  imperfectly  known  and  there  is 
much  need  of  further  investigation.  In  view  of  this  condi- 
tion it  is  virtually  impossible  to  give  much  help  in  treatment. 

Dysentery. 

This  condition  is  one  which  is  manifest  chiefly  in  late 
winter  and  is  caused  by  improper  food.  It  is  therefore  dis- 
cussed in  the  chapter  on  wintering. 

1  Alexander,  E.  W.,  1905.  How  to  rid  your  apiary  of  black  brood. 
Gleanings  in  bee  culture,  XXXIII,  pp.  1125-1127. 


410  Beekeeping 

Nosema  disease. 

In  1909  Zander^  showed  that  a  protozoon,  named  by  him 
Nosema  apis,  is  found  abundantly  in  the  mid-intestine 
of  adult  bees  and  he  associated  this  organism  in  a  causal 
relationship  with  the  death  of  many  ^thousands  of  colonies 
annually.  Since  this  announcement  other  investigators 
have  taken  up  work  on  this  organism.  It  has  been  deter- 
mined that  heating  the  organism  to  57°  C.  (134.6°  F.)  for 
ten  minutes  kills  it.  In  England  it  is  now  claimed ^  that 
this  organism  is  the  cause  of  the  so-called  Isle  of  Wight 
disease  or  Microsporidiosus  which  is  reported  to  have  deci- 
mated the  bees  on  that  island  and  to  have  caused  heavy 
losses  in  England.  Numerous  facts  concerning  this  organism 
have  been  brought  out,  especially  notable  being  the  wide 
geographical  distribution  of  the  parasite.  In  spite  of  the 
work  done  by  the  various  investigators  there  is  a  paucity  of 
authentically  proven  facts  which  leaves  much  to  be  desired. 
No  treatment  has  been  suggested  in  England  except  destruc- 
tion of  the  colony  to  prevent  the  spread  of  the  disease. 
American  beekeepers  will  do  well  to  await  reliable  investiga- 
tion before  following  such  advice. 

Paralysis. 

Under  this  name  beekeepers  seemingly  place  practically 
all  the  diseases  of  adult  bees  which  they  observe.  Symptoms 
attributed  to  paralysis  are  also  given  for  poisoning  and  the 
more  one  reads  of  the  s3rmptoms  and  treatments  suggested, 
the  more  hopeless  it  appears  when  one  is  asked  to  recommend 
treatment.     Until  more  is  known  it  is  unsafe  to  give  advice. 

Spring  dwindling. 

This  name  has  also  apparently  been  given  to  various 
conditions.     To  avoid  confusion  it  should  be  applied  only 

^  Zander,  Enoch,  1909.  Tierische  Parasiten  als  Krankheitserreger  bei  der 
Biene.    Miinchen. 

2  Graham-Smith  and  others,  1912.  Report  on  the  Isle  of  Wight  bee 
disease.     Supplement  Jr.  Board  of  Agric,  XIX,  No.  2,  143  pp. 

,  1913,  ibid.,  47  pp. 


Bee  Diseases  and  Enemies 


411 


to  the  loss  of  bees  in  the  spring  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
adults  have  been  weakened  by  poor  wintering  and  die  faster 
than  they  can  be  replaced  by  emerging  brood.  This  is 
therefore  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  wintering. 


Fig.  170. 


ENEMIES   OF  BEES 

Most  books  on  beekeeping  devote  considerable  attention 
to  the  enemies  of  bees,  of  which  there  are  several.  Since  they 
are  relatively  unimpor- 
tant, however,  the  dis- 
cussion will  here  be  con- 
fined to  the  two  species  of 
wax-moth.  These  do  no 
damage  to  strong  healthy 
colonies  of  bees  properly 
cared  for,  and  if  seen  in 
the  hive  they  indicate  weakness.  This  weakness  may  be 
due  to  queenlessness  or  lack  of  stores,  but  the  most  common 
cause  is  probably  a  brood  disease.  Beekeepers  frequently 
attribute  the  loss  from  disease  to  some  other  cause  and  wax- 
moths  are  most  frequently  blamed  for  the  losses  observed. 

The  wax-moth  (Galleria  mellonella) . 

The  larvae  of  this  moth  (Figs.  170,  171  and  172)  destroy 
combs  by  burrowing  through  them,  constructing  tunnels  of  silk 


Wax-moth  in  natural  posi- 
tion at  rest. 


Fig.  171.  —  Wax-moth,  male.     Enlarged. 


412 


Beekeeping 


Fig.  172.  —  Wax-moth,  female.     Enlarged. 


as  they  go  (Fig.  173).  These  tunnels  are  spotted  with  excreta. 
The  larvae  (Fig.  174)  feed  on  pollen,  cocoons  and  other  mate- 
rials in  the  combs.  The  e^ggs 
are  laid  in  crevices  in  the  hive 
or  in  any  narrow  space  (Fig. 
175)  and  seemingly  in  most  lo- 
calities there  are  probably  few 
hives  that  do  not  harbor  some 


Fig.  174.  —  Larva  of  wax -moth. 


Fig.    175.  —  Eggs    of    wax-moth 
laid  on  top-bar  of  frame. 


eggs.     If  combs  are  removed  from  the  bees  and  sealed  up, 
it  will  frequently  be  found  that  they  become  riddled  by 


Fig.  173.  —  Work  of  wax-moth  larvae  on  comb. 


Bee  Diseases  and  Enemies 


413 


the  tunnels  of  these  larvae,  presumably  developed  from  eggs 
already  present  on  the  combs  or  frames.  After  feeding,  the 
larvae  pupate,  first  spinning 
silken  webs  around  them- 
selves. Previous  to  pupa- 
tion (Figs.  176  and  177) 
they  sometimes  burrow  a 
little  way  into  the  hive 
wall,  this  being  specially 
noticeable  in  the  redwood 
hives  in  the  West.  The  life 
history  of  this  moth  has 
recently  been  described  by 
Paddock.^  Although  re- 
peatedly introduced,  the 
wax-moth  is  not  found  in  Colorado.  Except  for  special 
regions,  as  the  one  just  mentioned,  this  moth  is  found 
wherever  bees  are  kept  and  is  also  destructive  to  the  combs 
of  the  giant  bee  (Apis  dor  sola).     The  female  moths  can 


Fig.   176.  —  Pupa  of  wax-moth. 


Fig.  177.  —  Cocoons  of  wax-moth. 


1  Paddock,  F.  B.,  1913,  The  life  history  and  control  of  the  bee-moth  or 
wax-moth.  In  Bulletin  158  "Investigations  pertaining  to  Texas  beekeep- 
ing."    Texas  Agric.  Exp.  Station. 


414 


Beekeeping 


Fig.  178.  —  Lesser  wax-moth  in  nat 
ural  position. 

of   the    larger  species, 
side  wall  of  cells. 


Remedies. 

To  destroy  the  moth 
larvae  and  pupae  in 
combs  not  in  use,  place 
them  in  hives  tiered 
one  above  the  other 
and  on  top  place  an 
empty   hive   or   super. 


often  be  seen  flying  in  the 
apiary  in  early  evening  and 
attempting  to  enter  the 
hives. 

The  lesser  wax-moth  {Achroia 
grissella). 

This  moth  (Figs.  178,  179, 
180,  181  and  182)  is  less 
widely  distributed  in  the 
United  States  than  the  pre- 
vious species.  The  larvae 
tunnel  through  combs  in 
much  the  same  way  as  those 
The   eggs   are   laid   singly   on  the 


Fig.  179.  —  Lesser  wax-moth,  male. 


On  the  top-bars  of  the  upper- 
most frames  place  a  saucer  into  which  pour  bisulfid  of 
carbon.     The  gas  caused  by  the  evaporation  of  the  liquid 


Fig.  180.  —  Lesser  wax-moth,  female. 


Bee  Diseases  and  Enemies 


415 


is  heavier  than  air  and  settles  down  through  the  combs. 

Care  should  be  exercised  not  to  allow  the  fumes  to  reach  a 

flame,  as  the  gas  is 
highly  inflammable. 
The  eggs  of  the  wax- 
moth  are  usually  not 
destroyed  by  fumiga- 
tion, so  the  operation 
should  be  repeated  at 
intervals     of     two     or 

Fig.  181.  —  Lesser  wax-moth,  larva.  three    Weeks     Until     all 

the  eggs  have  hatched.     Sulphur  fumes  may  also  be  used. 


Other  enemies.  ^ 

Among  other  animals  which  may  be  mentioned  as  enemies 
of  bees  there  are  several  that  are  parasitic  or  predaceous, 
or   whidh   destroy  the 
combs.      Toads,    vari-  ^ — ^ 

•  w. 


Fig.  182.  —  Lesser  wax-moth, 
pupa. 


''&K1/;S 


Fig.  183.  —  Hive  stand  to  keep  olBf  ants.. 
The  band  around  the  post  is. tree 
tanglefoot. 


ous  species  of  birds,  mice,  rats  and  other  small  mammals 
(especially  in  winter),  certain  spiders   and  mites,   dragon- 


416  Beekeeping 

flies  (especially  in  Florida  where  they  destroy  queens 
while  mating),  various  Hemiptera  which  suck  the  blood 
of  adult  bees,  the  death's  head  moth  (repeatedly  men- 
tioned in  Europe),  Mediterranean  flour  moth  (eating  pollen 
in  stored  combs),  a  dipterous  parasite  {Br aula  cceca)  some- 
times found  on  imported  queens,  blister  beetle  (Meloe) 
and  other  beetles  feeding  on  pollen  or  combs,  wasps  and 
hornets  (Vespa)  and  ants,  especially  in  tropics  and  semi- 
tropics,  are  the  chief  offenders.  Dragonflies  are  so  destructive 
to  queens  as  to  make  queen-rearing  unprofitable  in  some 
places.  Various  devices  have  been  suggested  for  circumvent- 
ing ants,  among  which  is  the  hive  stand  shown  in  Fig.  183, 
used  in  Hawaii.  Around  the  post  which  serves  as  a  base, 
a  strip  of  tree  tanglefoot  is  painted  and  this  is  renewed  at 
intervals.  The  bee  louse  seemingly  does  not  thrive  in  Amer- 
ica. There  are  several  plants  which  trap  bees  and  destroy 
them  and,  as  mentioned  under  honey  plants,  the  pollen 
masses  of  certain  milkweeds  adhere  to  bees,  sometimes  mak- 
ing them  incapable  of  flight. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

THE  REARING  OF  QUEENS 

Unless  the  queen  at  the  head  of  a  colony  is  a  good  one 
it  is  useless  to  expect  that  colony  to  be  productive.  It 
therefore  becomes  necessary  for  the  progressive  beekeeper 
to  pay  considerable  attention  to  the  rearing  of  queens  which 
fulfill  the  requirements  for  commercial  success.  The  chief 
requirements  are  proUficness,  vigor  of  offspring  and  purity 
of  race.  While  ability  in  egg-laying  is  a  character  which  is 
inherited,  it  is  also  influenced  by  the  age  of  the  queen  and  by 
the  care  she  received  during  her  development.  Quietness 
in  winter,  reduction  in  swarming  and  gentleness  are  other 
desirable  characters. 

Commerical  queen-rearing. 

Queen-rearing  has  become  a  prominent  specialty  in 
American  beekeeping  and  there  are  numerous  beekeepers 
who  devote  almost  their  entire  energies  to  rearing  queens  of 
various  races  for  sale.  To  these  specialists,  beekeepers  have 
in  the  past  looked  for  the  greatest  advancement  in  the 
breeding  of  better  stock,  but  it  is  becoming  more  and  more 
evident  that  this  work  should  not  be  left  entirely  to  commer- 
cial breeders.  In  any  event  it  is  usually  not  economical  for 
the  extensive  beekeeper  to  purchase  all  of  his  queens.  Queens 
that  have  been  shipped  through  the  mails,  especially  those 
that  have  previously  been  laying  heavily,  are  frequently  in- 
jured to  the  extent  that  they  never  again  fully  show  their 
former  proUficness.  Even  if  this  were  not  the  case,  the  cost 
of  queens  is  almost  always  greater  than  is  warranted  by  the 
2  b  417 


418  Beekeeping 

time  saved  the  honey-producer  in  not  rearing  them.  This 
should  not  be  interpreted  as  an  intimation  that  American 
queen  breeders  charge  excessive  prices,  for  such  is  emphati- 
cally not  the  case,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  so  many  queen 
breeders  are  compelled  to  abandon  the  work  in  a  year  or 
two  as  financially  unprofitable.  From  data  furnished  the 
author  by  numerous  commercial  breeders,  it  is  evident  that 
many  of  them  would  make  more  money  if  they  devoted 
their  time  to  honey-production.  However,  each  queen 
costs  relatively  much  less  in  time  and  honey  in  requeening 
perhaps  half  the  colonies  in  an  apiary  in  a  season  than  it  does 
when  one  rears  a  large  number  of  queens  in  making  a  busi- 
ness of  rearing  queens  for  sale. 

Systematic  requeening. 

The  giving  of  a  yourfg  queen  to  each  colony  at  stated  times 
is  coming  to  be  the  approved  practice  of  some  of  the  best 
commercial  honey-producers.  After  two  seasons  in  a  large 
colony  in  temperate  regions  (about  one  year  in  the  tropics), 
the  majority  of  queens  are  incapable  of  laying  the  large  num- 
ber of  eggs  per  day  that  were  laid  earlier.  There  are  many 
individual  exceptions,  and  if  a  beekeeper  can  give  each  colony 
considerable  attention  he  may  get  good  results  from  a  large 
per  cent  of  his  older  queens.  The  extensive  commercial 
honey-producer  cannot  spend  much  time  on  each  colony  and 
he  must  work  by  averages.  If,  therefore,  older  queens  are  less 
prolific  and  if  the  cost  of  requeening  does  not  exceed  the 
increased  profits  due  to  the  giving  of  young  queens,  he  is 
prudent  to  requeen.  Before  deciding  this  he  should  count 
the  cost  and  should  especially  see  to  it  that  he  is  reducing 
his  queen-rearing  to  a  system  so  that  no  time  is  wasted  in 
this  work.  As  honey-production  becomes  more  intensive 
and  as  queen-rearing  methods  become  more  economical  of 
time,  an  increasing  number  of  extensive  beekeepers  are 
finding  it  profitable  to  requeen  each  colony  once  in  two  years 
systematically  and,  of  course,  to  replace  queens  earlier  if  any 
prove  defective. 


The  Rearing  of  Queens  419 

Conditions  under  which  queens  are  rea/red. 

There  are  three  circumstances  under  which  bees  build 
queen  cells  naturally  and  in  artificial  queen-rearing  it  is 
necessary  to  bring  about  or  to  utilize  some  one  of  these  condi- 
tions. (1)  The  most  common  condition  is  that  found  in  the 
preparation  for  swarming  (p.  62).  (2)  If  a  colony  becomes 
queenless  and  if  suitable  larvse  are  present,  queens  will  be 
reared.  (3)  If  a  queen  becomes  inefficient  the  workers  will 
rear  young  queens  to  supersede  her.  It  is  believed  that  the 
best  queens  are  those  reared  under  the  swarming  impulse 
and  in  supersedure. 

Saving  natural  queen  cells. 

During  the  swarming  season  the  beekeeper  can  often 
obtain  a  number  of  fine  queen  cells  without  any  cost  in  time 
by  taking  queen  cells  from  colonies  preparing  to  swarm, 
provided  the  parent  queens  are  of  satisfactory  stock.  By 
placing  these  in  colonies  to  be  requeened,  after  the  removal 
of  the  condemned  queens,  requeening  takes  place  naturally 
and  without  further  manipulation.  Making  a  colony  queen- 
less  early  in  a  honey-flow,  like  that  from  clover  in  the  North, 
costs  less  perhaps  than  a  period  of  queenlessness  at  any  other 
time,  in  that  the  eggs  laid  then  are  not  of  value  as  future 
honey  gatherers.  Furthermore,  this  may  often  be  done  in 
connection  with  dequeening  to  treat  swarming.  By  keeping 
a  watch  for  opportunities  to  utilize  good  natural  queen  cells, 
time  may  be  saved  by  reducing  the  amount  of  artificial  queen- 
rearing. 

Having  natural  cells  huilt. 

The  Miller  method.  —  C.  C.  Miller  advocates  the  follow- 
ing method :  The  breeding  queen  is  kept  in  a  two-frame 
nucleus  so  that  all  comb  built  will  be  of  worker  cells.  Be- 
ginning at  about  the  time  queen  cells  are  being  built  for 
swarming,  on  the  same  day  each  week  a  frame  is  inserted  in 
place  of  one  of  the  combs  in  the  nucleus  containing  the 


420 


Beekeeping 


breeding  queen.  This  new  frame  contains  two  small  starters 
of  foundation  about  4  by  1  inches,  placed  4  inches  from 
each  end.  If  the  nucleus  is  fairly  populous,  in  a  week  this 
frame  will  contain  considerable  comb  and  the  cells  will  con- 
tain eggs  and  young  larvae.  It  is  now  taken  away  and  another 
frame  with  starters  substituted.  The  new  comb  is  now 
trimmed  so  that  the  cells  at  the  edge  containing  eggs  are  cut 
away,  leaving  young  larvae  on  the  border  of  the  comb.  It  is 
then  inserted  in  the  middle  of  a  strong  colony  which  has 
begun  to  build  queen  cells  in  preparation  for  swarming,  all 

former  queen 
cells  being  de- 
stroyed and  the 
queen  being  re- 
moved. In  ten 
days  the  comb 
containing  queen 
cells  from  eggs 
of   the  breeding 

Fig.  184.  —  Comb  cut  for  starting  queeii  cells  by  the  queen     is     re- 

AJley   method.     A    strip  of  partly  drawn   comb-  mOVed     and    the 
foundation  is  here  used  to  hold  the  eggs  chosen  „ 

for  queen-rearing.  CellS       given       tO 

nuclei  from 
which  the  queens  are  mated.  They  may  if  desired  be  left 
in  a  nursery  cage  to  emerge. 


The  Alley  method.  —  For  convenience,  a  method  described 
by  Alley  has  much  to  commend  it.  A  strip  of  comb  is  cut 
out,  just  wide  enough  to  contain  one  complete  row  of  cells 
containing  eggs.  This  is  then  cut  down  by  removing  about 
two-thirds  of  the  side  walls  on  one  side.  With  a  match 
or  small  stick,  one  in  every  two  or  two  in  every  three  eggs 
are  destroyed,  leaving  the  cells  empty.  The  strip  of  comb  is 
now  fastened  to  the  lower  edge  of  a  comb  cut  as  represented 
in  Fig.  184,  the  eggs  remaining  now  being  pointed  down- 
ward. This  prepared  frame  is  now  given  to  a  queenless 
colony  from  which  all  young  unsealed  brood  has  been  re- 


The  Rearing  of  Queens 


421 


moved.     The  workers  remodel  the  cells  which  contain  the 
eggs,  making  them  into  queen  cells. 


The  Hopkins  method.  —  Another  method  has  recently  been 
recommended  by  Hopkins  ^  for  getting  queen  cells  in  quan- 
tity. A  new  comb  is  given  to  a  breeding  queen  to  be  filled 
with  eggs,  after  which  it  is  removed,  and  with  a  sharp  knife 
three  out  of  every  four  rows  of  cells  across  the  comb  are  cut 
away  to  the  midrib,  leaving  every  fourth  row  intact.  Two 
of  every  three  eggs  are  then  destroyed  as  described  previously, 
as  well  as  any 
eggs  accidentally 
left  between  the 
rows.  This  comb 
is  now  laid  face 
down  over  the 
brood-chamber  of 
a  queenless  colony, 
being  raised  above 
the  top-bars  of  the 
hive  by  means  of 
an  empty  frame  or 
a  specially  con- 
structed collar. 
The  sealed  queen  cells  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  il- 
lustration (Fig.  185).  To  protect  the  developing  queens 
from  cold,  the  horizontal  frame  should  be  covered  with  a 
light  mat.  To  prevent  sagging,  the  comb  may  be  supported 
by  wires  wound  around  the  frame  between  the  rows  of  cells. 
It  is  possible  that  when  so  many  cells  are  built  some 
queens  are  not  good. 

With  any  of  these  methods  the  queen  cells  may  be  cut 
out  and  protected  with  a  West  spiral  wire  cell  protector  and 
given  to  a  colony  or  small  nucleus,  or  they  may  be  placed 
in  a  nursery  cage  for  the  queens  to  emerge. 


Fig.    185.  —  Queen 


cells   reared 
method. 


by  the  Hopkins 


1  Hopkins,  I.,   1911.     The  illustrated  Australasian  bee  manual, 
ington,  N.  Z.     See  also  various  journal  articles  by  this  author. 


WeU- 


422  Beekeeping 

Queen  cells  on  artificial  bases. 

To  have  the  queen  cells  in  more  convenient  shape  for 
handling,  artificial  cell  cups  have  been  devised.  Doolittle  ^ 
made  cups  by  dipping  a  smooth  stick  with  rounded  end  into 
melted  wax  and  removing  the  adhering  wax.  Now  the  usual 
method  is  to  use  wooden  cell  bases.  A  short  cylinder  of 
wood  is  hollowed  out  on  one  end  and  lined  with  wax,  the 
cavity  being  the  size  of  a  queen  cell  base.  The  opposite 
end  of  the  cylinder  has  a  nail  point  in  it  so  that  the  cell  cup 
may  be  readily  attached  to  a  wooden  strip  or,  better,  the 
cylinder  is  flanged  and  hangs  through  a  hole  in  the  support- 
ing bar  (Fig.  187).' 

Transferring  larvce. 

Having  made  the  necessary  cups  they  are  inverted,  and 
the  usual  practice  is  to  wipe  the  inside  of  the  cell  with  a  little 
royal  jelly  procured  from  another  queen  cell.  Young 
larvae  are  now  carefully  lifted  from  the  worker  cells  and 
placed  in  the  artificial  cell  cups,  being  taken  of  course  from 
the  colony  of  the  queen  selected  as  best  for  breeding.  The 
supplied  cells  are  now  hung  in  a  colony  prepared  for  cell 
building.  The  larvae  chosen  should  be  as  young  as  they 
can  be  obtained,  preferably  not  more  than  one  day  from  the 
egg.  Older  larvae  may  be  used  but  the  resulting  queens 
will    probably    be    less    valuable. 

Swarm  box. 

A  method  for  getting  queen  cells  started  which  is  in  some 
respects  preferable  to  putting  them  in  a  queenless  colony  is 
the  use  of  the  swarm  box  (Fig.  186).  A  special  box,  with 
wire  screen  bottom  to  provide  adequate  ventilation,  is  made 
large  enough  to  hold  five  full  frames,  but  only  three  are  used, 
there  being  left  alternating  spaces  the  width  of  a  frame. 
The  frames  used  should  be  abundantly  supplied  with  pollen 

1  Doolittle,  G.  M.,  1889.  Scientific  queen  rearing.  Chicago:  also  later 
editions. 

2  See  the  ^various  booklets  by  E.  L.  Pratt  (pseudonym  Swarthmore). 


The  Rearing  of  Queens 


423 


and  honey  and  it  is  best  to  have  one  an  empty  comb  into 
which  water  is  poured.  The  top  of  the  box  is  removable 
and  has  two  slots  cut  in  it  into  which  are  fitted  two  cell  bars 
which  allow  the  queen  cells  to  hang  over  the  spaces  between 
the  frames.  When  the  box  is  prepared  with  the  frames 
fastened  in  place  and  the  slots  filled  with  the  empty  cell  bars 
(or  plain  strips  of  wood),  bees  are  shaken  into  the  box  suffi- 
cient to  fill  it  more  completely  than  bees  are  usually 
found  in  a  hive,  care 
being  taken  that  a 
queen  is  not  put  into 
the  swarm  box.  This 
should  usually  be  done 
about  ten  o'clock  in 
the  morning  when  the 
field  bees  are  mostly 
away  from  the  hive, 
thus  providing  a  sur- 
plus of  young  bees. 
In  about  six  hours  the 
empty  artificial  cell 
bases  are  removed  one 
at  a  time  and  a  worker 
larva  transferred  to 
each  one,  the  hole 
meanwhile  being  closed 
by  an  extra  cup.  When  this  is  completed  the  top  of 
the  box  is  covered  snugly  to  keep  the  cells  warm  and 
the  swarm  box  is  put  away  in  a  dark  cool  place.  Usually 
by  the  next  morning  most  of  the  cell  cups  will  have 
been  built  down  and  queen  development  will  have  be- 
gun. Considerable  variation  in  the  success  of  this  method 
has  been  reported  and  there  are  numerous  phases  of  this 
question  on  which  more  light  is  needed.  Some  strains 
of  bees  seem  to  be  poor  for  this  purpose.  On  the  whole, 
however,  when  directions  are  carefully  followed,  a  good 
number  of  fine  queen  cells  will  usually  be  obtained.     The 


Fig.  186.  —  Swarm  box  for  starting  queen 
cells,  showing  position  of  frames  and  inner 
side  of  lid,  with  wooden  cells  in  place,  ready 
for  bees. 


^4 


Beekeeping 


method  commends  itself  because  of  the  saving  of  time  and 
it  is  used  by  many  commercial  queen  breeders. 


Fig.  187.  —  Pratt  nursery.     Two  cells  are  removed  to  show  construction. 
Six  such  nursery  cages  fit  in  a  Langstroth  frame. 

Having  cells  built  out. 

After  cells  have  been  started  by  any  of  the  methods  given, 
they  may  be  put  in  the  upper  story  of  a  normal  colony, 
protected  by  perforated  zinc  to  keep  the  queen  from  destroy- 
ing the  cells.     During  the  time  that  the  queen  larvae  are 


Fig.  188.  —  Queen  mating  hives.  This  type  is  used  in  the  apiary  of  the 
Bureau  of  Entomology.  The  frames  are  supported  by  tins  which  may 
be  removed  and  used  to  fasten  three  frames  together  to  form  a  large 
frame  of  Langstroth  dimensions.  A  feeder  is  provided  either  at  the 
front  (right)  or  back  (left)  of  the  hive.  These  small  hives  are  un- 
necessarily complex. 


The  Rearing  of  Queens 


425 


taking  food  they  should  be  kept  in  a  strong  colony  so  that 
they  will  be  abundantly  fed.  If  there  is  no  honey-flow,  it  is 
necessary  to  give  the  colony  some  sugar  syrup  or  honey 
daily  to  keep  it  in  prime  condition.  The  cells  will  be  well 
cared  for  in  strong  queenless  colonies,  but  to  keep  colonies 
queenless  so  long  is  expensive.  It  is  a  well  recognized  fact 
that  if  a  colony  is  divided  by  perforated  zinc,  the  portion 
away  from  the  queen  is  in  condition  to  build  and  care  for 
queen  cells  and  may  be  considered  as  virtually  queenless. 

Nursery  cages. 

Before  the  queens  are  ready  to  emerge,  about  ten  days 
from  the  time  of  transferring  the  larvae,  each  cell  may  be  put 
in  some  sort  of  nursery  cage 
(Fig.  187),  so  that  as  the  queens 
emerge  they  will  not  kill  each 
other  or  destroy  other  cells. 
As  a  rule  individual  cages  for 
each  queen  cell  are  best.  If 
colonies  are  ready  to  receive 
them  the  best  method  is  to 
put  each  queen  cell  in  a  colony 
so  that  there  will  be  no  neces- 
sity for  introducing  adult 
queens. 

Mating  hives. 

In  case  it  is  desired  to  have 
the  queens  mated  before  intro- 
ducing them  to  full  colonies 
or  if  queens  are  being  raised 
for  sale,  the  queen  cells  or 
virgin  queens  (as  most  con- 
venient) may  be  put  in  small 
colonies,  usually  known  as  nuclei.  Two  types  of  mating 
boxes  are  illustrated  (Figs.  188  and  189),  but  it  is  usually 
most   satisfactory   not   to   use   too   small    a    mating   box. 


Fig.  189.  —  "  Baby  nucleus  "  hive 
devised  by  Pratt.  An  introduc- 
ing cage  is  in  place  between  the 
frames. 


426 


Beekeeping 


Many  beekeepers  prefer  to  use  full  Langstroth  frames  in 
boxes  built  to  hold  about  three  frames. 

Classification  of  queens. 

When  a  queen  has  mated  (usually  in  five  to  eight  days) 
and  has  begun  to  deposit  eggs  she  is  ready  to  use  and  is 
known  in  the  queen  trade  as  untested.  At  this  time  it 
cannot  be  determined  whether  she  has  mated  with  a  drone 
of  her  own  race,  but  if  she  is  kept  for  a  little  over  three  weeks 
(until  her  progeny  emerges)  the  color  of  the  workers  is  taken 
as  an  indication  of  the  purity  or  impurity  of  her  mating. 
If  apparently  purely  mated  she  is  known  in  the  trade  as  a 

tested  queen.  Further  observa- 
tions may  cause  her  to  be  classed 
as  select  tested  or  finally  as  a 
breeding  queen. 


Fig.  190.  —  Queen  mailing  cage. 
The  right-hand  hole  is  filled 
with  candy  which  is  then 
covered  with  a  circle  of  comb- 
foundation  or  waxed  paper. 
The  cork  at  the  end  is  re- 
moved when  used  foi'  an  in- 
troducing cage. 


Mailing  cages. 

If  queens  are  to  be  shipped 
they  are  usually  put  in  a  queen 
mailing  cage  (Fig.  190)  with  some 
workers  and  an  adequate  supply 
of  food,  usually  a  soft  paste  or 
candy  made  by  kneading  together 
confectioner's  (not  powdered)  sugar  and  honey  without 
heating.  Queens  are  frequently  mailed  across  the  con- 
tinent or  from  Europe  in  these  cages  and  have  been 
shipped  successfully  to  New  Zealand.  Usually  a  trip  of 
over  ten  days  results  in  considerable  loss. 

Introducing  cages. 

The  queen  mailing  cage  is  also  used  as  an  introducing 
cage  or  special  cages  may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  Cages 
are  so  constructed  that  the  queen  is  separated  from  the 
workers  in  the  hive  that  is  to  receive  her  by  soft  candy. 
The  workers  gradually  eat  this  out  and  in  the  meantime 
the  queen  acquires  the  colony  odor  so  that  when  the  candy 


The  Rearing  of  Queens  427 

is  eaten  away  she  walks  out  without  excitement  and  is 
accepted.  This  is  the  most  common  method  of  introducing 
queens.  Some  beekeepers  dip  the  queen  in  honey  and  place 
her  in  the  colony.  The  workers  promptly  remove  the  honey 
and  usually  accept  the  queen.  Others  fill  the  hive  with 
smoke  and  close  the  entrance  after  letting  the  queen  run  in. 
Whatever  is  done  the  queen  should  acquire  the  colony  odor 
so  that  the  workers  will  not  attack  her  as  they  normally  do 
strange  queens.  Young  virgin  queens  are  more  readily 
accepted  than  mated  queens.  Colonies  that  have  been 
queenless  for  a  considerable  time  are  usually  difficult  to 
requeen  and  this  is  especially  true  if  in  the  meantime  some 
of  the  workers  have  begun  to  lay  eggs  (p.  187).  In  intro- 
ducing a  queen  it  is  necessary  that  the  colony  be  queenless 
or  the  strange  queen  will  be  killed. 

Improvement  of  stock. 

In  addition  to  the  manipulations  of  queen-rearing  there 
are  some  fundamental  principles  which  should  be  considered. 
It  should  be  the  poficy  not  only  to  provide  queens  as  needed 
but  to  keep  steadily  improving  the  stock.  For  this  work 
beekeepers  usually  depend  on  the  specialists  in  queen-rearing 
but  it  is  desirable  that  each  beekeeper  keep  the  ideal  of 
bettering  his  stock  constantly  before  him.  The  breeding  of 
Italian  queens  for  additional  yellow  on  the  abdomen,  result- 
ing in  the  so-called  five-banded  bees,  clearly  demonstrates 
that  changes  can  be  made  by  applying  the  principles  of 
breeding  to  queen-rearing.  While  the  merits  of  these  bees 
is  a  subject  of  dispute  the  success  in  this  fine  of  endeavor 
should  encourage  the  beekeeper  to  believe  that  as  striking 
things  are  possible  in  other  lines  of  bee  breeding. 

It  is  evident  that  certain  characteristics  which  the  bee- 
keeper wishes  to  develop  and  some  which  he  wishes  to  reduce 
or  destroy  must  be  inherited.  Exceptional  prolificness, 
gentleness,  excessive  swarming,  protracted  breeding  and 
their  opposites  are  characteristic  of  various  races  and  strains 
of  bees  but  not  of  the  entire  species.    This  leads  to  the  beUef 


428  Beekeeping 

that  the  bee  breeder  may  hope  to  modify  his  bees  along 
these  hnes  by  proper  care  in  selecting  his  breeding  material. 
The  actual  results  of  practical  beekeepers  also  show  that 
improvement  may  be  made,  as  indicated  by  increased  crops. 

Study  of  breeding  needed. 

It  is  not  practical  in  this  place  to  enter  upon  an  elaborate 
discussion  of  the  methods  and  results  of  modern  breeding. 
To  what  characters  of  bees  Mendelian  inheritance  is  oper- 
ative has  not  been  shown  by  the  work  so  far  done  although 
color  is  probably  so  inherited.  Bee  breeding  has  not  been 
subject  to  the  researches  of  the  theoretical  breeders  but  work 
of  this  character  is  greatly  to  be  desired.  Certain  funda- 
mental facts  should  be  mentioned,  however,  and  they  are 
chosen  here  because  they  have  been  misunderstood  by  bee- 
keepers writing  for  bee  journals.  The  fact  that  a  queen  is 
poorly  developed  because  of  inadequate  care  during  develop- 
ment does  not  make  her  undesirable  as  a  breeding  queen 
and,  conversely,  prolificness  induced  by  extra  care  and 
manipulation  does  not  make  a  queen  more  valuable  for 
breeding,  because  characters  acquired  during  the  life  of  the 
individual  are  not  inherited. 

Selection  of  drones. 

As  great  care  should  be  exercised  in  choosing  the  drones 
as  is  employed  in  selecting  the  breeding  queen,  but  most 
beekeepers  fail  to  give  this  subject  adequate  consideration. 
In  general  the  drone  (father)  is  just  as  influential  in  deciding 
the  character  of  the  offspring  as  is  the  queen  (mother). 
Drones  may  be  selected  by  allowing  drones  to  fly  only  from 
the  colony  or  colonies  which  are  up  to  the  breeding  standard 
and  drone  production  in  these  colonies  may  be  increased  by 
providing  drone  comb.  Drone  rearing  in  other  colonies 
may  be  restricted  by  giving  only  worker  comb  or  the  un- 
desirable drones  may  be  trapped  by  a  queen  and  drone  trap 
(Fig.  30).  While  the  beekeeper  cannot  choose  the  indi- 
vidual drone  with  which  a  queen  mates  he  can  increase  the 


The  Rearing  of  Queens  429 

chances  of  desirable  matings  by  providing  plenty  of  drones 
of  good  stock  and  restricting  undesirable  drones.  When 
the  workers  begin  to  drive  drones  from  the  hives  they  may 
be  protected  by  putting  them  in  a  queenless  colony,  where 
they  will  not  be  molested. 

DesirabiUty  of  pure  races. 

Above  all,  the  desirability  of  pure  races  should  be  empha- 
sized. It  is  a  common  belief  that  hybrids  (usually  crosses 
of  Italians  and  blacks)  are  good  honey  gatherers.  Crosses 
of  other  races  are  also  recommended.  The  first  cross  is 
often  desirable  from  the  standpoint  of  honey  gathering  but 
it  is  better  to  breed  from  pure  stock  only,  for  the  offspring 
of  a  hybrid  queen  is  exceptionally  variable  and  it  is  rather  a 
matter  of  chance  if  good  stock  results.  Presumably  the 
desirable  characteristics  of  certain  crosses  might  be  fixed 
by  judicious  and  inteUigent  selection,  but  this  is  a  problem 
for  a  professional  breeder  and  not  for  the  honey  producer  or 
even  for  the  commercial  queen  breeder. 

Danger  from  inbreeding. 

This  has  been  much  overestimated  in  the  discussions  of 
breeding  in  the  bee  journals.  Inbreeding  may  accentuate 
undesirable  characters  but  it  may  likewise  help  to  fix  desir- 
able characters,  and  it  has  been  used  with  good  results  in 
other  lines  of  breeding.  The  commercial  honey  producer 
need  have  little  fear  of  harmful  results,  for  if  any  signs  of 
degeneracy  are  observed  it  is  easy  at  any  time  to  introduce 
new  blood. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

MISCELLANEOUS  INFORMATION 

Beekeeping  does  not  consist  solely  in  caring  for  bees 
and  in  using  or  selling  their  products.  The  activities  of 
beekeepers  are  expressed  in  various  allied  fields  and  since 
these  are  things  about  which  the  beekeeper  wants  and  should 
have  information,  it  is  proposed  in  a  brief  closing  chapter 
to  give  a  few  notes  which  may  be  helpful,  but  which  do  not 
find  a  place  in  the  previous  chapters. 

Literature  on  bees  and  beekeeping. 

In  the  centuries  during  which  men  have  been  interested  in 
the  honeybee,  hundreds  and  even  thousands  of  books  have 
been  written  on  this  subject.  No  other  insect,  and  perhaps 
no  other  animal  except  man,  has  been  so  voluminously 
discussed.  Many  of  these  books  are  now  of  interest  only 
to  the  collectors  of  old  bee  books,  for  the  advance  in  our 
knowledge  of  these  subjects  through  investigation  has 
naturally  left  many  of  the  older  books  far  behind.  That 
there  have  been  in  the  ranks  of  bee  enthusiasts  some  men  of 
rare  powers  of  observation,  is  attested  by  the  enduring  value 
of  some  of  their  works.  Even  to  list  the  books  on  bee- 
keeping would  probably  require  a  book  the  size  of  this  one, 
so  this  interesting  task  must  be  set  aside.  The  beekeeper 
will  find  it  to  his  advantage  to  read  almost  every  one  of  the 
few  books  now  offered  to  the  American  beekeeper. 

In  addition  to  the  works  issued  in  book  form,  there  is  an 
extensive  literature  on  bees  in  scientific  journals,  unfortu- 
nately not  readily  accessible  to  most  beekeepers.  Reference 
is  made  to  many  of  these  papers  in  the  preceding  pages. 

430 


Miscellaneous  Information  431 

Some  of  the  journals  devoted  to  beekeeping  have  contained 
articles  of  lasting  practical  value  but  unfortunately  these 
journals  are  too  often  read  and  at  once  cast  aside,  not  being 
properly  filed  and  indexed  for  future  references.  The  Bureau 
of  Entomology  has  a  working  bibliography,  arranged  by 
authors  and  subjects,  which  is  far  from  complete  but  which, 
nevertheless,  is  helpful  and  is  probably  the  most  extensive 
so  far  attempted  for  beekeeping  literature.  It  contains 
about  20,000  titles. 

At  present  there  are  four  journals  devoted  to  the  interests 
of  the  beekeeper  published  in  the  United  States  and  one 
in  Canada.  A  larger  number  appear  regularly  in  various 
European  countries  to  which  unfortunately  few  American 
beekeepers  have  access.  There  should  be  regular  summaries 
and  abstracts  of  the  best  articles  in  these  journals  prepared 
for  American  beekeepers  either  in  a  bee  journal  or  separately. 

Several  valuable  bulletins  have  been  issued  by  state  insti- 
tutions. 

Organizations  of  beekeepers. 

There  are  in  the  United  States  probably  100  societies  of 
beekeepers,  organized  to  protect  the  interests  of  those  now 
engaged  in  the  work,  to  educate  their  members  in  the  prac- 
tical and  scientific  phases  of  beekeeping  and  to  promote 
the  industry.  Most  of  these  associations  are  active  and  help- 
ful and  they  are  nearly  all  growing  and  being  improved. 
Every  beekeeper  should  be  a  member  of  one  or  more  of  these 
organizations,  to  help  and  be  helped.  The  National  Bee 
Keepers'  Association  is  an  association  of  affiliated  societies, 
the  business  being  conducted  through  annual  meetings  of 
delegates. 

Laws. 

It  is  not  proposed  in  this  place  to  discuss  the  legal  status  of 
bees  or  to  delineate  the  legal  rights  of  their  owners.  Some 
of  the  associations  of  beekeepers  offer  protection  to  their 
members  in  case  of  legal  complications. 


432  Beekeeping 

The  special  laws  in  which  beekeepers  are  most  interested 
are  those  which  provide  for  the  inspection  of  apiaries  for 
the  control  of  bee  diseases.  This  work  falls  on  the  individual 
states,  there  being  at  present  no  Federal  laws  on  this 
subject.  The  number  of  states  having  such  inspection 
has  increased  rapidly  within  recent  years  until  now  practi- 
cally all  the  states  in  which  beekeeping  is  an  important 
industry  offer  such  protection.  The  desirable  work  now  is 
to  improve  and  unify  these  laws  and  to  bring  about  greater 
co-operation  in  the  inspection  service  of  the  various 
states.  The  Association  of  Economic  Entomologists  now 
has  a  section  devoted  to  apiary  inspection  which  is  attempt- 
ing this  work. 

Some  states  have  laws  which  prohibit  the  spraying  of 
fruit  trees  while  in  full  bloom,  the  purpose  of  these  being  to 
prevent  the  poisoning  of  bees  at  work  on  the  blossoms. 

Supplies  for  beekeepers. 

It  has  been  shown  in  earlier  chapters  that  it  is  quite  neces- 
sary that  hives  and  other  apiary  supplies  be  accurately  made, 
and  for  this  reason  it  is  usually  desirable  that  a  beekeeper 
buy  his  equipment  from  some  manufacturer,  unless  he  is  a 
skilled  wood  worker.  The  American  beekeepers  are  fortu- 
nate in  that  the  supply  business  of  the  country  is  adequate. 
There  are  a  number  of  extensive  establishments,  and  most 
of  them  have  agencies  or  branches  in  various  parts  of  the 
country  from  which  supplies  may  be  obtained  on  short 
notice.  The  manufacturers  will  gladly  send  catalogs  on 
request  and  give  information  concerning  agencies.  The 
addresses  of  manufacturers  may  be  obtained  from  adver- 
tisements in  the  bee  journals. 

The  uses  of  honey. 

This  subject  might  well  form  the  title  of  a  separate  chap- 
ter, were  space  available  for  a  longer  discussion.  While  the 
production  of  honey  does  not  include  its  use,  this  is  a  subject 


Miscellaneous  Information  433 

about  which  beekeepers  should  have  information  as  an  aid 
to  the  early  selling  of  their  wares.  They  and  their  families 
may  set  a  good  example  to  their  customers  by  using  honey 
freely  in  the  homes. 

That  honey  is  preferable  to  other  syrups  is  usually  acknowl- 
edged. It  is  assuredly  to  be  preferred  to  the  cheap  jams  and 
jellies  which  are  so  common  in  our  markets.  The  chief 
use  of  honey  in  the  home  is  as  a  spread  for  bread,  for  which 
purpose  it  may  be  used  in  any  form.  It  is  often  recom- 
mended in  old  recipe  books  and  books  on  beekeeping  for  use 
for  almost  all  human  ailments,  from  boils  and  freckles  to 
diphtheria  and  tape  worms,  but  in  these  days  such  medicinal 
uses  are  not  to  be  commended  except  on  the  advice  of  a 
physician. 

A  use  of  honey  which  should  be  more  emphasized  is  in 
cooking.  Fruits  preserved  in  honey  have  long  been  relished 
for  their  superior  flavor  and  are  still  in  high  favor  among 
those  who  have  tried  them.  The  famous  Bar  le  due  pre- 
serves are  made  with  honey.  It  is  used  extensively  in  com- 
mercial bakeries,  especially  in  cakes  which  will  probably 
be  kept  for  some  time  before  they  are  eaten.  It  is  also  used 
in  some  of  the  finest  confections  as  well  as  in  the  making  of 
vinegar.  In  former  days,  and  to  some  extent  to-day  in  parts 
of  Europe,  considerable  honey  was  used  in  making  fermented 
drinks  which  are  reported  to  have  been  as  powerful  as  they 
were  popular. 

There  has  recently  been  issued  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  a  bulletin  ^  on  the  use  of  honey 
in  the  home  which  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  beekeeper, 
every  beekeeper's  wife  and  every  beekeeper's  customers. 
Since  it  may  be  had  on  application  it  should  have  a  wide 
distribution.  The  recipes  have  been  carefully  tested  and 
only  a  few  of  the  best  are  given.  A  substitution  rule  is 
given  by  which  honey  may  be  substituted  for  sugar  in  any 
cake. 

*  Hunt,  Caroline  L.  and  Atwater,  Helen  W.,  1915.     Honey  and  its  uses 
in  the  home.     Farmers*  Bulletin  No.  653,  26  pp. 
2p 


434  Beekeeping 

Honey  crop  reports. 

In  1914  the  Bureau  of  Crop  Estimates  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  inaugurated  a  system  of  crop  reports 
on  honey.  The  first  report  was  on  the  condition  of  the  bees 
and  of  honey-producing  plants  on  May  1st,  to  enable  bee- 
keepers and  others  interested  to  form  an  opinion  as  to  the 
probable  results  of  the  season.  At  the  close  of  the  season  a 
report  of  the  crop  was  issued.  When  it  is  considered  that 
this  is  the  first  attempt  at  anything  of  this  kind,  it  is  encour- 
aging to  l,earn  from  beekeepers  that  the  estimate  for  the 
various  states  coincides  closely  with  their  experience.  In 
1915  a  somewhat  more  elaborate  program  is  proposed.  It 
will,  of  course,  be  recognized  that  reporters  need  experience 
in  work  of  this  character  before  they  can  give  data  which 
are  most  serviceable,  but  there  is  every  reason  to  hope  that  with 
an  accumulation  of  data  for  several  years  these  reports  will 
be  of  great  value  to  honey  producers.  The  beekeeper  will 
then  be  provided  with  reliable  data  which  heretofore  have 
been  obtainable  only  by  honey  buyers  through  their  business 
connections  and  he  will  thus  be  enabled  to  know  what  he 
should  ask  for  his  products. 

Educational  work  in  beekeeping. 

The  advances  of  past  years  in  beekeeping  have  come 
chiefly  through  an  exchange  of  ideas  and  results  through  the 
journals  and  books  on  this  subject  and  more  recently  by  the 
distribution  of  bulletins  from  the  Federal  and  State  labora- 
tories devoted  to  beekeeping.  It  is  now  coming  to  be 
generally  accepted  that  these  educational  agencies  are  not 
entirely  sufficient  and  also  that  the  industry  is  worthy  of 
more  recognition.  Several  agricultural  colleges  are  now 
teaching  beekeeping  and  it  is  being  included  to  a  limited 
extent  in  the  extension  work  of  various  institutions.  If 
this  work  can  be  enlarged  adequately  there  is  a  great  future 
for  the  industry  along  commercial  lines  and  it  is  to  the 
interest  of  every  person  engaged  in  any  branch  of  beekeep- 
ing activities  to  further  this  development. 


Miscellaneous  Information  435 

The  Bureau  of  Entomology. 

The  author  includes  at  the  close  of  this  book,  with  some 
hesitancy,  a  brief  statement  of  the  work  of  the  Bureau  of 
Entomology  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture on  beekeeping,  with  which  he  is  associated.  This  is 
done  for  the  purpose  of  informing  present  and  prospective 
beekeepers  of  the  activities  and  purposes  of  this  office,  with 
a  view  to  enlisting  their  interest  and  support. 

Since  the  various  states  are  rapidly  taking  up  work  in 
beekeeping  and  since  the  state  officials  are  in  a  position  to 
carry  on  educational  and  extension  work  more  advanta- 
geously, especially  with  the  present  small  appropriations  for 
Federal  work,  it  seems  desirable  that  the  work  of  the  Bureau 
of  Entomology  should  be  confined  chiefly  to  investigation. 
At  the  present  time  these  investigations  include  work  on  the 
activities  of  bees  during  the  winter  season  and  the  practical 
wintering  of  bees,  the  development  of  bees,  a  study  of  the 
sense  organs  of  the  adult  bee  and  the  function  of  these  organs 
in  bee  behavior  and  the  diseases  of  bees.  Some  other  lines 
of  work  of  importance  have  been  investigated  and  still 
others  are  waiting  inauguration,  and  when  funds  are  avail- 
able work  will  be  begun  on  them. 

The  work  in  bee  culture  is  now  carried  on  in  a  laboratory 
(see  Frontispiece)  located  in  Drummond,  Maryland,  a  suburb 
of  Washington.  This  laboratory  may  easily  be  reached 
from  the  city  by  trolley.  All  mail  should  be  addressed  to  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.C. 

In  addition  to  the  specific  lines  of  investigation  the  office 
desires  to  assist  in  the  many  problems  which  are  constantly 
arising,  and  correspondence  of  beekeepers  is  invited. 

The  results  of  the  work  of  this  office  are  published,  in  so 
far  as  possible,  in  the  series  of  publications  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture.  These  publications,  so  long  as  they 
are  in  print,  may  be  obtained  either  from  the  Department  or 
from  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Government  Printing 
Office,  Washington,  D.C.  The  following  papers,  originating 
in  the  Bureau  of  Entomology,  have  been  issued  since  1905 : 


436  Beekeeping 

Phillips,  E.  F.,  1911.     The  treatment  of  bee  diseases.     Farmers' 

Bulletin  No.  442. 
Phillips,  E.  F.,  1911.     Bees.     Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  447. 
Demuth,  Geo.  S.,  1912.     Comb  honey.     Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  503. 
Phillips,  E.  F.,  1905.     The  rearing  of  queen  bees.     Bulletin  No.  55, 

Bureau  of  Entomology. 
Report  of  the  meeting  of  inspectors  of  apiaries,  San  Antonio,  Texas, 

November  12,  1906.    Bulletin  No.  70,  Bureau  of  Entomology. 

1907. 
Phillips,  E.  F.,  1907.     Production  and  care  of  extracted  honey. 

Bulletin  No.  75,  Part  I,  Bureau  of  Entomology. 
Phillips,  E.  F.,  1907.    Wax  moths  and  American  foul  brood.    Bulle- 
tin No.  75,  Part  II,  Bureau  of  Entomology. 
Gates,  Burton  N.,  1908.     Bee  diseases  in  Massachusetts.     Bulletin 

No.  75,  Part  III,  Bureau  of  Entomology. 
White,  G.  F.,  1908.     The  relation  of  the  etiology  (cause)  of  bee  dis- 
eases to  the  treatment.     Bulletin  No.  75,  Part  IV,  Bureau  of 

Entomology. 
Phillips,  E.   F.,  1909.     A  brief   survey  of   Hawaiian   beekeeping. 

Bulletin  No.  70,  Part  V,  Bureau  of  Entomology. 
Phillips,    E.   F.,  1909.     The   status  of   apiculture   in   the  United 

States.     Bulletin  No.  70,  Part  VI,  Bureau  of  Entomology. 
Gates,  Burton  N.,  1909.     Beekeeping  in  Massachusetts.     Bulletin 

No.  70,  Part  VII,  Bureau  of  Entomology. 
Phillips,  E.  F.  and  White,  G.  F.,  1912.     Historical  notes  on  the 

causes  of  bee  diseases.     Bulletin  No.  98,  Bureau  of  Entomology. 
Casteel,  D.  B.,  1912.      The  behavior  of  the  honey  bee  in  pollen 

collecting.     Bulletin  No.  121,  Bureau  of  Entomology. 
White,   G.   F.,   1906.     The  bacteria  of  the  apiary,   with  special 

reference  to  bee  diseases.     Technical  Series  No.  14,  Bureau  of 

Entomology. 
Snodgrass,  R.  E.,  1910.     The  anatomy  of  the  honey  bee.     Techni- 
cal Series  No,  18,  Bureau  of  Entomology. 
Phillips,  E.  F.,  1906.     The  brood  diseases  of  bees.     Circular  No. 

79,  Bureau  of  Entomology. 
White,  G.  F.,  1907.     The  cause  of  American  foul  brood.     Circular 

No.  94,  Bureau  of  Entomology. 
Phillips,  E.  F.,  1911.     The  occurrence  of  bee  diseases  in  the  United 

States.     Circular  No.  138,  Bureau  of  Entomology. 
White,  G.  F.,  1912.     The  cause  of  European  foul  brood.     Circular 

No.  157,  Bureau  of  Entomology. 
Casteel,  D.  B.,  1912.     The  manipulation  of  the  wax  scales  of  the 

honey  bee.     Circular  No.  161,  Bureau  of  Entomology. 
White,  G.  F.,  1913.     Sacbrood,  a  disease  of  bees.     Circular  No. 

169,  Bureau  of  Entomology. 


Miscellaneous  Information  437 

White,  G.  F.,  1914.  Destruction  of  germs  of  infectious  bee  dis- 
eases by  heating.     Bulletin  No.  92,  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Phillips,  E.  F.  and  Demuth,  Geo.  S.,  1914.  The  temperature  of  the 
honey  bee  cluster  in  winter.  Bulletin  No.  93,  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

Gates,  Burton  N.,  1914.  The  temperature  of  the  bee  colony. 
Bulletin  No.  96,  Department  of  Agriculture. 

The  following  papers  have  been  pubUshed  in  other  series 
of  publications  of  the  Department  and  with  one  exception 
have  not  been  prepared  in  the  Bureau  of  Entomology : 

Van  Dine,  D.  L.  and  Thompson,  Alice  R.,  1908.  Hawaiian  honeys. 
Bulletin   No.    17,    Hawaii   Agricultural   Experiment   Station. 

PhiUips,  E.  F.,  1914.  Porto  Rican  beekeeping.  Bulletin  No.  15, 
Porto  Rico  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

Browne,  C.  A.,  1908.  Chemical  analysis  and  composition  of  Ameri- 
can honeys,  including  a  microscopical  study  of  honey  pollen 
by  W.  J.  Young.     Bulletin  No.  110,  Bureau  of  Chemistry. 

Bryan,  Given  and  Sherwood,  1912.  Chemical  analysis  and  com- 
position of  imported  honey  from  Cuba,  Mexico  and  Haiti. 
Bulletin  No.  154,  Bureau  of  Chemistry. 

Westgate,  J.  M.  and  Vinall,  H.  N.,  1912.  Sweet  clover.  Farmers* 
Bulletin  No.  485. 

Hunt,  CaroUne  L.  and  Atwater,  Helen  W.,  1915.  Honey  and  its 
uses  in  the  home.     Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  653. 


APPENDIX 

EXPLANATION    OF    SYMBOLS    USED    IN    THE 
ANATOMICAL  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Since  nearly  all  of  the  illustrations  of  anatomical  parts  are 
from  the  work  of  Snodgrass  it  may  be  best  to  give  the  list 
of  symbols  and  alphabetical  lettering  prepared  by  him  and 
given  on  pp.  141-147  of  his  paper.  These  will  aid  in  iden- 
tif3dng  parts  which  are  labeled  in  the  illustrations,  used  in 
this  book  to  illustrate  certain  portions  only. 

1.     SYMBOLS 

A,  anal  vein ;  lA,  first  anal,  2 A,  second  anal,  etc. 

AcGly  accessory  gland  of  male  reproductive  organs. 

AGU  acid  gland  of  sting,  opening  into  poison  sac  {PsnSc). 

AGlDj  duct  of  acid  gland  of  sting. 

An,  anus. 

ANPj  anterior  wing  process  of  no  turn. 

ANR,  anterior  marginal  ridge  of  no  turn. 

Ant,  antenna. 

AntL,  antennal  lobe  of  brain. 

AntNv,         antennal  nerve. 

Ao,  aorta. 

Ap,  apodeme,  any  internal  chitinous  process  of  body-wall. 

Aph,  anterior  phragma  of  any  tergum,  prephragma. 

Ax,  the  axillaries  or  articular  sclerites  of  the  wing  base, 

designated  individually  as  lAx,  2 Ax,  3 Ax,  and  4 Ax. 
ax,  accessory  axillary  sclerites  of  irregular  occurrence  in 

connection  with  the  principal  axillaries  {Ax). 
AxC,  axillary  cord,  or  ligament-like  thickening  of  posterior 

edge  of  basal  membrane  of  wing,  attached  to  posterior 

angle  of  scutellum. 
AxM,  axillary  membrane,  the  thin  membrane  of  wing  base, 

containing  the  axillary  sclerites  and  forming  in  some 

cases  the  lobes  called  alulae. 
439 


440 


Beekeeping 


B,  bulb  (bulb  of  penis  or  of  sheath  of  sting). 
BC,  body-cavity. 

he,  any  particular  part  of  body  cavity  such  as  that  pro- 
longed into  the  mouth  parts,  legs  or  pieces  of  the  sting. 

BCpx,  bursa  copulatrix. 

BGl,  alkaline  gland  of  sting. 

BMy  basement  membrane. 

Br,  brain. 

IBr,  protocerebrum. 

SBr,  deutocerebrum. 

SBr,  tritocerebrum. 

Brh,  barb. 

BW,  body-wall. 

C,  costa,  first  vein  of  wing. 

Cb,  pollen  basket  or  corbiculum  on  hind  tibia  of  worker. 

CC,  crystalline  cone  of  compound  eye. 

Cd,  cardo. 

Cer,  cercus. 

CL,  crystalline  lens  of  compound  eye. 

CI,  ClSf  cell,  cells. 

Cla,  claw. 

Clp,  clypeus. 

Clsp,  clasping  lobes  of  ninth  segment  of  male,  perhaps 
equivalent  to  the  four  gonapophyses  of  ninth  seg- 
ment of  female. 

IClsp,  upper  or  outer  clasper. 

2Clsp,  lower  or  inner  clasper. 

Com,  commissure  (of  either  nervous  or  tracheal  system). 

Cor,  cornea. 

Ctl,  cuticle,  the  chitinous  layer  of  the  epidermis. 

Cu,  cubitus,  fifth  vein  of  generalized  wing. 

Cv,  cross-vein. 

Cx,  coxa. 

CxP,  pleural  coxal  process. 

Dct,  duct. 

DDph,  dorsal  diaphragm. 

Dph,  diaphragm. 

DphCls,  diaphragm  cells. 

Dphmh,  membrane  of  diaphragm. 

DphMcl,  muscle  fibers  of  diaphragm. 

E,  compound  eye. 

EAp,  apodeme  of  extensor  muscle. 

EjD,  ejaculatory  duct. 

Em,  lateral  emargination  of  notum. 

EMcl,  extensor  muscle. 


Appendix 


441 


Emp,- 

empodiiiTTi. 

Enz, 

digestive  vesicles  formed  by  ventricular  epithelium. 

Ep, 

epicraniuTTi. 

Ephy, 

epipharynx. 

Epm, 

epimerum. 

Eps, 

episternum. 

Epth, 

epithelium. 

F. 

femur. 

Fh 

flagellum. 

For, 

foramen  magnum. 

Ft, 

front. 

FtCom, 

frontal  commissure. 

FtGng, 

frontal  ganglion. 

FtNv, 

frontal  nerve. 

Fu, 

furca  or  median  entosternal  apodeme  of  thoracic  sterna. 

G, 

gonapophysis. 

6a, 

galea. 

(?e, 

gena. 

Gl, 

gland. 

IGU 

large  pharyngeal  gland  in  anterior  part  of  head  of 

worker. 

2GU 

salivary  gland  in  posterior  part  of  head. 

SGI, 

thoracic  salivary  gland. 

4GI, 

small  median  gland  below  pharyngeal  plate  (s). 

Gls, 

glossa. 

Gng, 

ganglion. 

Gu, 

gula. 

H, 

head. 

Hk, 

hooks  on  front  edge  of  hind  wing. 

Hphy, 

hypopharynx. 

Hr, 

hair. 

hr. 

surface  disk  of  "auditory"  organ  of  antenna,  probably 

modified  base  of  sensory  hair. 

HS, 

honey  stomach. 

Ht, 

heart. 

ht. 

individual  chamber  of  heart. 

HtCls, 

pericardial  cells. 

HtTraSc, 

pericardial  tracheal  sac. 

Int, 

intima,  the  chitinous  lining  of  any  internal  organ. 

IT, 

tergum  of  first  abdominal  segment,  the  median  segment, 

or  propodeum,  incorporated  into  thorax. 

L, 

leg. 

L6, 

labium. 

Lbl 

labellum. 

LbNv, 

labial  nerve. 

442 


Beekeeping 


LhPlp, 

labial  palpus. 

Lc, 

laelnia. 

Let, 

lancet  of  sting,  equivalent  to  first  gonapophysis  {IG). 

Lg, 

ligula. 

LGl, 

"lubricating"  gland  of  sting  (not  shown  in  figures). 

Lin, 

median  lobe  of  lingua  or  hypopharynx. 

Lm, 

labrum. 

LMcl, 

longitudinal  muscles. 

Imcl, 

ventral  longitudinal  muscles  of  thorax. 

LmNv, 

labral  nerve. 

Lr, 

lorum. 

LTra, 

trachea  of  leg. 

Lum, 

lumen,  the  cavity  of  any  hollow  organ,  whether  the 

glossa,  sting,  alimentary  canal,  or  gland. 

M, 

media,  fourth  vein  of  wing.     M1-M4,  first  to  fourth 

branches  of  media. 

m. 

median  plate  or  plates  of  wing  base. 

Mai, 

Malpighian  tubules. 

Mb, 

intersegmental  membrane. 

mb, 

membrane. 

m-cu. 

medio-cubital  cross-vein. 

MD, 

disklike  muscle  apodeme. 

Md, 

mandible. 

IMdGl, 

outer  saclike  mandibular  gland. 

2MdGl, 

inner  racemose  mandibular  gland. 

MdNv, 

mandibular  nerve. 

Mes, 

mesathorax,  designated  by  figure  2  placed  after  and 

below  any  thoracic  symbol. 

Met, 

metathorax,  designated  by  figure  3  placed  after  and 

below  any  thoracic  symbol. 

Mi, 

the  chitinous  plates  of  the  neck  collectively,  the  "mi- 

cro thorax,"  individually  designated  mi. 

mi. 

cervical  (microthoracic)  sclerites. 

m-m. 

median  cross-vein. 

Mps, 

mouth  parts  or  trophi. 

Mt, 

mentum. 

Mth, 

mouth. 

Mx, 

maxilla. 

MxPlp, 

maxillary  palpus. 

MxNv, 

maxillary  nerve. 

N, 

notum. 

Nu, 

nucleus. 

Nv, 

nerve. 

0, 

ocellus. 

06, 

oblong  plate. 

Appendix 


443 


Oc, 

(E. 

(ECom, 

Om, 

OpL, 

Ost, 

Ov, 

ov, 

OvD, 

OvO, 


IP,  2P, 
SP,  4P* 
PA, 
Pel, 
PD, 

Pd, 
Pen, 
PenB, 
Peps, 

Pge, 
PgU 

Pgu, 

Ph, 

Phy, 

PU 

Ph 

Plf. 

Pig, 
Pip, 

Pmb, 
PMcl 
PN, 


pn. 


PNP, 
PNR, 


occiput. 

oesophagus. 

circumoesophageal  commissures. 

ommatidium. 

optic  lobe. 

ostium  or  lateral  aperture  of  heart. 

ovary. 

ovariole,  individual  ovarian  tube. 

oviduct. 

opening  of  vagina  or  median  oviduct. 

paraptera,  small  pleural  plates  below  base  of  wing, 
typically  two  episternal  paraptera  or  preparaptera 
(IP  and  2P)  before  pleural  wing  process  {WP),  and 
two  epimeral  paraptera  or  postparaptera  (SP  and 
4P)  behind  wing  process. 

episternal  paraptera,  preparaptera. 

epimeral  paraptera,  postparaptera. 

arm  of  pleural  ridge. 

postclypeus. 

muscle  disk  of  episternal  paraptera,  giving  insertion  to 
pronator  muscle  (not  present  in  the  bee). 

peduncle. 

penis. 

bulb  of  penis. 

preepisternum. 

postgena. 

paraglossa. 

pregula. 

phragma. 

pharynx. 

pleurum, 

subdivision  of  pleurum. 

palpifer,  palpus-carrying  lobe  of  maxilla. 

palpiger,  palpus-carrying  lobe  of  labium. 

palpus. 

peritrophic  membrane. 

pronator  muscle. 

postnotum  or  pseudonotum,  the  second  or  postalar 
tergal  plate  of  the  wing-bearing  segments  of  most 
insects,  the  "  postscutellum "  of  higher  orders. 

small  rod  connecting  postscutellum  (postnotum  PN) 
with  upper  edge  of  epimerum,  probably  a  detached 
piece  of  the  former. 

posterior  notal  wing  process. 

posterior  marginal  ridge  of  notum. 


444  Beekeeping 

Pph,  posterior  phragma  or  postphragma  of  any  tergum, 
carried  by  the  second  notal  plate  or  postnotum  (PN), 
the  ^'postscutellum"  of  higher  forms. 

PRf  internal  pleural  ridge,  the  entopleurum,  marked  exter- 
nally by  pleural  suture  (PS). 

Prb,  proboscis. 

PrhFSf  fossa  of  proboscis. 

PS,  pleural  suture,  external  line  separating  episternum  and 
epimerum,  marking  site  of  internal  pleural  ridge. 

P«,  presternum. 

PsCt  prescutum. 

Pscl,  postscutellum  (postnotum). 

Pslj  poststernellum. 

PsnC,  poison  canal  of  sting. 

PsnSCf  poison  sac  of  sting  into  which  opens  the  acid  gland  (AGl). 

PU  sensory  pit. 

Ptr,  peritreme,  spiracle-bearing  sclerite. 

Pvent,  proventriculus. 

PventVlv,  proventricular  tube  or  valve  in  ventriculus. 

Qd,  quadrate  plate  of  sting. 

Ry  radius,  third  vein  of  generalized  wing.  Ri-R^,  first  to 
fifth  branches  of  radius.     Rs  radial  sector. 

RAp,  apodeme  of  fiexor  muscle. 

Rdy  posterior  extension  or  reduplication  of  any  tergal  or 
sternal  plate  overlapping  plate  following  it. 

Reel,  rectum,  the  large  intestine  of  insects. 

RGl,  rectal  glands. 

r-m,  radio-medial  cross-vein. 

RMcl,  flexor  muscle  of  mandible  or  wing. 

IRMcl,  dorsal  retractor  muscle  of  hgula. 

2RMcl,  ventral  retractor  muscle  of  ligula. 

JB„  radial  sector,  or  second  branch  of  radius  at  first  forking. 

S,  sternum. 

SalD,  salivary  duct. 

SalDO,  external  opening  of  salivary  duct. 

Sc,  subcosta,  second  vein  of  generalized  wing. 

Sdy  scutellum. 

Sep,  scape. 

Set,  scutum. 

Sga,  subgalea. 

Sh,  sheath  of  sting,  equivalent  to  the  second  gonapophyses 
(2G)  or  middle  pair  on  ninth  abdominal  segment. 

ShA,  basal  arm  of  sheath  of  sting. 

ShB,  bulb  of  sheath  of  sting  or  ovipositor. 

ShS,  shaft  of  sheath  of  sting. 


Appendix 


445 


SInt, 

small  intestine. 

SI, 

sternellum. 

Slin, 

superlingua,  embryonic  lateral  lobes  of  hypopharynx, 

true  appendages  of  fifth  head  segment. 

Smt, 

submentum. 

SoeGng, 

suboesophageal  ganglion. 

Sp, 

spiracle. 

Spm, 

spermatheca. 

SpmGl, 

spermathecal  gland. 

St, 

stipes. 

StgNv, 

stomatogastric  nerve. 

Stn, 

sting. 

StnPlp, 

palpuslike  appendages  of  the  sting,  equivalent  to  the 

third  gonapophyses  (SG)  or  the  outer  pair  on  ninth 

abdominal  segment. 

T, 

tergum. 

IT. 

first  abdominal  tergum,  the  propodeum,  incorporated 

into  thorax. 

IIT, 

second  abdominal  tergum. 

Tar, 

tarsus. 

Tb, 

tibia. 

Ten, 

large  tentorial  arms  of  head,  the  mesocephalic  pilla.rs. 

ten. 

slender  tentorial  arch  over  foramen  magnum. 

Tes, 

testes. 

Tg, 

tegula. 

TMcl, 

transverse  muscle. 

Tn, 

trochantin  (not  separated  from  sternum  in  bee). 

TnC, 

coxal  condyle  of  trochantin. 

Tr, 

trochanter. 

Tra, 

trachea. 

TraCom, 

transverse  ventral  tracheal  commissures  of  abdomen. 

TraSc, 

tracheal  sac. 

Tri, 

triangular  plate  of  sting. 

Vag, 

vagina. 

VDef, 

vas  deferens. 

VDph, 

ventral  diaphragm. 

Vent, 

ventriculus. 

VentVlv, 

ventricular  fold  or  valve  in  small  intestine. ' 

Ves, 

vesicula  seminalis. 

Vlv, 

valve  of  sting  carried  by  lancet. 

VMcl, 

large  vertical  muscles  of  thorax. 

VNR, 

internal,  median  V-shaped  notal  ridge,  the  "entodor- 

Vx, 

sum. 
vertex. 

w. 

wing. 

446  Beekeeping 

W^Nv,  mesothoracic  wing  nersre. 

WzNvy  metathoracic  wing  nerve. 

TTP,  wing  process  of  pleurum. 

2.     ALPHABETICAL   LETTERING 

a,  clypeal  suture. 

6,  anterior  tentorial  pit,  in  clypeal  suture. 

c,  posterior  tentorial  pit,  in  occiput  beside  foramen  mag- 

num. 

dy  thickened  posterior  edge  of  lateral  wall  of  fossa  of 

proboscis. 

ie,  process  at  upper  end  of  d  articulating  with  cardo  of 

maxilla  and  forming  maxillary  suspensorium. 

/,  internal  median  keel  of  vertex  in  cranium  of  drone. 

^,  suspensorial  ligaments  of  anterior  end  of  cBsophagus. 

hy  pharyngeal  rod. 

i,  convolutions  of  dorsal  blood  vessel. 

y,  anterior  articular  knob  of  mandible. 

fc,  ventral  groove  of  glossa. 

1,  ventral  groove  of  maxillary  rod. 
w,                  median  plates  of  wing  base. 

n,  basal  hooks  of  glossa. 

o,  median  ventral  plate  of  ligula. 

p,  dorsal  plates  of  anterior  end  of  mentum,  supporting 

ligula. 
q,  inner  wall  of  canal  of  glossa. 

r,  chitinous  rod  of  glossa. 

s,  pharyngeal  plate,  on  anterior  part  of  floor  of  pharynx. 

t,  saUvary  pouch  opening  on  dorsal  side  of  base  of  ligula, 

receiving  common  duct  of  salivary  glands  (SalD). 
Uf  oblique  muscles  inserted  upon  dorsal  side  of  salivary 

pouch  of  ligula. 
y,  transverse  or  V-shaped  suture  on  surface  of  mesonotum 

or  metanotum,   formed   by   the  internal   V-shaped 

ridge  or  "entodorsum"  {VNR). 
w,  lateral  lobe  of  pronotum  projecting  posteriorly  over  the 

first  spiracle. 
X,  thoracic  plate  lying  laterad  of  anterior  part  of  sternum, 

often  regarded  as  a  part  of  presternum. 
y,  accessory  sclerite  of  fourth  axillary  (4 Ax)  of  front  wing, 

affording  insertion  for  slender  muscle  (cc)  attached 

below  to    common  apodeme    of   mesosternum    and 

metasternum. 

2,  coxal  condyles  of  mesothoracic  and  metathoracic  sterna, 


Appendix  447 

probably  really  the  coxal  condyles  of  trochantins 
(TnC)  fused  entirely  with  the  sterna  and  epi- 
sterna  in  each  segment. 

aa,  muscle  arising  from  inner  wall  of  mesothoracic  pleurum 

and  inserted  upon  outer  end  of  corresponding  scutel- 
lum,  probably  accessory  in  function  to  the  great 
vertical  muscles  {VMcl)  between  the  mesothoracic 
sternum  and  scutum. 

66,  coxo-axillary   muscle,    extending   from   upper   end   of 

coxa  to  third  parapterum  (3P). 

cCf  muscle  inserted  upon  accessory  sclerite  (y)  of  fourth 

axillary  (4 Ax)  from  common  entostemum  of  meso- 
thorax  and  metathorax. 

ddt  notch  of  antenna  cleaner  on  first  tarsal  joint  (ITar)  of 

front  leg. 

ee,  spine  of  antenna  cleaner  situated  on  distal  end  of  tibia 

(Th). 

ffj  so-called  "wax  shears"  or  "wax  pincers." 

gg^  transverse  chitinous  band  of  empodium  (Emp),  which 

compresses  its  two  lobes  when  not  in  use  and  spreads 
out  by  muscular  effort. 

hhf  dorsal  plate  supporting  empodium. 

it,  ventral  plate  supporting  empodium. 

jjy  dorsal  groove  of  lancet  interlocking  with  ventral  ridge 

of  sheath  of  sting. 

fcfc,  sting  chamber  within  end  of  seventh  abdominal  seg- 

ment, lodging  sting  whose  accessory  plates  are  derived 
from  eighth  and  ninth  segments. 

K,  reservoir  of  thoracic  sahvary  gland. 

mnif  receptacular    chitinous    pouches    on    ventral    side    of 

pharyngeal  plate  (s)  receiving  ducts  of  large  lateral 
pharyngeal  glands  of  head  (IGl). 

nn,  "stomach-mouth"   at  summit  of  pro  ventricular  pro- 

jection within  honey  stomach  (HS). 

00,  pores  on  lancets  and  shaft  of   sting   sheath   opening 

to  exterior  from  prolongation  of  body-cavity  (be)  con- 
tained in  each. 

pp,  gelatinous  layer  secreted  upon  inner  surface  of  ventric- 

ular epitheUum. 

gg,  food  contents  of  aUmentary  canal. 

rr,  cells  of  ventricular  epithelium  apparently  forming  the 

internal  gelatinous  layer. 

88,  cartilaginous  mass  on  inner  surface  of  dorsal  wall  of 

bulb  of  penis  (  PenB). 

U,  dorsal  plates  of  bulb  of  penis. 


448  Beekeeping 

uUf  fimbriated  dorsal  lobes  of  penis  at  base  of  bulb, 

fw,  ventral  scalariform  row  of  plates  on  tube  of  penis. 

wWf  dorsal  basal  plates  of  penis. 

xXt  ventral  basal  plates  of  penis. 

yyi  basal  pouch  of  penis. 

zg,  copulatory  sacs  of  penis. 


INDEX 


Abandoning  of  hive,  81. 
Abdomen,  140. 
Achroia  grissella,  414. 
Acid,  formic,  in  honey,  84. 
Acid  in  cleaning  wax,  338. 
Activity  in  winter  cluster,  90,  347. 
Adult  bee  diseases,  409. 
Adulteration  of  comb-foundation,  341 . 

of  wax,  339. 
Advantages  of  comb-honey,  304. 

of  extracted-honey,  287. 
Advertising  honey,  332. 
African  bees,  202. 
After-swarms,  71. 
After-swarming  prevented,  275. 
Age,  method  of  determining,  107. 
Alfalfa,  206. 

region,  208. 
Alley  method  of  queen-rearing,  420. 
Alley  traps,  32. 
Amateur  beekeepers,  2. 
American  appliances,  advantage  of, 

11. 
American  foul  brood,  81,  398. 
Anatomical  symbols,  439. 
Anatomy,  132. 

Antennae,  two  pairs  in  embryo,  99. 
Antennal  sense  organs,  174. 
Ants,  enemies,  416. 

comparison  of  colony,  106. 
Aphids,  source  of  honey-dew,  371. 
Apiary  grounds,  228. 

house,  23. 

size,  232. 
Apis,  genus,  193. 
Apparatus,  evolution  of,  23. 

requirements  in,  23. 
Arrangement  of  hives,  231. 


Artificial  queen-cells,  422. 

swarming,  effects  of,  58. 

swarms,  283. 
Asiatic  bees,  203. 
Aspinwall  hive,  78. 
Associations  of  beekeepers,  431. 

Bacillus  larvoe,  401. 

pluton,  402. 
Bait  sections,  317. 
Barrels  for  honey,  320. 
Bee-escape,  24,  32. 

-glue,  50. 

-house,  9,  10. 

-journals,  431. 
Beekeeping  a  minor  industry,  3. 

now  undeveloped,  5. 
Bee-space,  26,  27. 

-stings  sometimes  serious,  13. 
Beeswax  production,  334. 

source,  109. 
Bee-tree,  transferring  from,  248. 
Bee-way  sections,  308. 
Beginner's  outfit,  226. 
Beginning  beekeeping,  222. 

on  small  scale,  2. 
Behavior,    knowledge   of,    necessary, 
13,  34. 

nature  of,  180. 

of  swarming  bees,  74. 

source  of  data,  35. 
Bellringing  in  swarming,  66. 
Berlepsch,  Baron  v.,  67. 
Bibliography,  430. 
Black  bees,  200. 

brood,  401. 
Bleaching  wax,  338.  / 

Blending  honeys,  322. 


Note  :  The  names  of  honey-plants  given  in  the  Annotated  List  of  Honey- 
Plants  (pp.  372  to  396)  are  not  included  in  this  alphabetical  index  since 
they  are  given  in  alphabetical  order  in  the  list. 
2g  449 


450 


Index 


Blood  of  bees,  150 

Boiler  for  wax  rendering,  335. 

Bonnier,  120. 

Bordas'  names  of  glands,  111. 

Bottles  for  honey,  322. 

Bottom  starters,  312. 

Bouvier,  52. 

Brain,  163. 

Braula  cceca,  416. 

Break  test  for  wax,  339. 

Breathing,  151. 

Breeding,  269,  417. 

investigations  needed,  428. 
Brood,  46. 

concentric  arrangement  of,  56. 

development,  55. 

diseases,  397. 

early  arrangement  of,  55. 

-emergence,    effect    on    swarming, 
280. 
Brood-rearing  cycle,  57. 

end  of,  86. 

temperature,  60. 

time  of  beginning,  55. 

in  winter,  347. 
Brood,  removal,  283. 

spreading  of,  262. 

stages,  length  of,  60. 

uses  after  swarming,  275. 
Brush  for  bees,  31. 
Bulk  comb-honey,  318. 

marketing,  330. 
Bulletins  on  beekeeping,  435. 
Bureau  of  Entomology,  435. 
Buttel-Reepen,  v.,  172. 
Buying  bees,  222. 

Caging  of  queen,  281. 
Canada,  statistics  of  beekeeping  in,  4. 
Candy  for  winter  food,  345. 
Capping  cans,  294. 

melters,  295. 

of  cells,  49. 
Care  of  comb-honey,  316. 
Carniolan  bees,  202.  - 

hive,  9. 
Cartons  for  comb-honey,  329. 
Casteel,  110,  123. 
Caucasian  bees,  196. 

hives,  6,  8. 
Cause  of  swarming,  75. 


Cellar  temperature,  347,  353. 

wintering,  353. 
Cell  division,  96. 
Cells,  accuracy,  48,  49. 

contents,  49. 
Cellular  structure  of  tissues,  94. 
Cheshire,  111,  112. 
Chilling  of  brood,  56. 
Chinese- Japanese  bees,  203. 
Chorion  of  egg,  184. 
Chunk  honey,  318. 
Circulation,  148. 
Cleaning  hives  in  spring,  259. 

new  home,  68. 

sections,  325. 

wax,  337. 
Climate,  influence  on  secretion,  362. 
Clipping  queens,  260,  273. 
Closed-end  frames,  28. 
Closing  the  hive,  240. 
Clustering  of  swarm,  65. 

aids  to,  66. 
Cocoon,  51,  101. 
Cold-blooded  animals,  59. 
Colonial  life,  necessity  of,  38,  39. 
Color,  European  foul  brood,  402. 

of  combs,  51. 

of  hives,  30. 

perception,  169. 
Comb-building,  68,  108. 

plan  in,  51. 

description,  46. 

-foundation,  28,  340. 

-honey  marketing,  325. 

-honey  production,  301. 

-honey  production  decreasing,  303. 
Commercial  breeders,  417. 
Complete  metamorphosis,  100. 
Compound  eyes,  166. 

hairs,  104. 
Condensation  in  hive,  345. 
Confinement  in  winter,  356. 
Conservation  of  heat,  90. 
Constancy  of  workers,  119. 
Consumption  of  colony,  364. 
Contents  of  cells,  49. 
Contraction  of  swarms,  278. 
Control  of  natural  swarms,  272. 
Cook,  113. 

Cooking,  honey  in,  433. 
Co-operative  selling,  333. 


Index 


451 


Courses  in  beekeeping,  225. 
Cowan,  113. 

Critical  temperature,  90. 
Crop  reports  on  honey,  434. 
Cross-pollination,  6,  365. 
Cultivation  of  plants  for  nectar,  363. 
Cut  comb-honey,  319. 
Cutter,  comb-foundation,  33. 
Cycle  of  duties  of  worker,  104. 

of  the  year,  54. 
Cyprian  bees,  196. 

Dadant  apiaries,  219. 

hive,  10. 
Danger  from  poor  investigation,  36. 
Dead  bees  in  cellar,  352. 
Decrease  in  comb-honey,  303. 
Defence  of  colony,  117. 
Delayed  swarms,  71. 
Demand  for  fancy  comb-honey,  303. 
Demuth,  301. 
Demuth's  observations  on  swarming, 

77. 
Dequeening,  281. 

for  Eulropean  foul  brood,  409. 
Desertion  of  swarms,  278. 
Developmental  stages,  93,  102. 
Digestion,  141. 
Disadvantages  of  comb-honey,  304. 

of  extracted-honey,  287. 
Disease,  effects  of,  215. 
Diseases  of  bees,  397. 
Disinfection  of  hives,  406. 

of  honey,  407. 
Disposal  of  combs  after  extracting, 

300. 
Dissolving  wax,  337. 
Disturbance,  effect,  60. 

harmful,  234. 

in  winter,  347. 
Distribution  of  bees,  213. 
Division  of  labor,  106. 

in  gathering,  120. 
Domestic  animals,  bees  not,  38. 
Donhoff,  108. 
Doolittle  cell  cups,  422. 
Door  for  honey-house,  24. 
Double-walled  hives,  352. 
Drainage  in  cellar,  354. 
Drawn  combs,  290. 
Dreyling,  109. 


Drifting  in  spring,  256. 
Drone  cell,  46. 

description,  44. 

duties,  106. 

food,  116. 

killing,  86. 

-laying  queens,  70. 

selection,  428. 
Drones,   retained  in  queenless  colo- 
nies, 45. 
Dufour,  57. 
Duration  of  life,  126. 
Dysentery,  356,  409. 
Dzierzon,  8,  9. 

theory,  187. 

Early  embryonic  development,  96. 
Educational  work,  434. 
Egg,  95. 

-laying,  normal,  41. 

-laying  restriction,  281. 

origin,  181. 
Eggs  which  fail  to  hatch,  191. 
Egyptian  bees,  194. 
Embryology,  93. 
Emulsion  of  wax,  338. 
Enemies  of  bees,  411. 
English  hive,  10. 
Entrance  in  winter,  352. 
Enzymes  in  ripening,  85. 
Equalizing  colonies,  259,  313. 
Equipment,  importance  of,  22. 
Essentials  in  beekeeping,  251. 
European  foul  brood,  401. 
Excretion,  153. 

Experience  in  behavior  work  advan- 
tageous, 36. 
Extracted-honey  marketing,  320. 

-honey  production,  286. 

wax,  337. 
Extracting,  298. 
Extractors,  296. 
Extra-floral  nectaries,  370. 
Eyes,  166. 

Fall  treatment  for  disease,  408. 
Fanning  in  winter  cluster,  91. 

of  swarming  bees,  66. 
Farmer-beekeepers,  disadvantages  of, 

2,3. 
Fat  body,  153. 


452 


Index 


Feces,  effects  in  winter,  356. 

in  winter,  89,  91. 

of  young  bees,  107. 

retention,  147. 
Feeders,  33,  242. 
Feeding,  240. 

for  winter,  345. 

of  larva,  101,  111. 
Fertilization  of  egg,  96. 
Field  duties  of  workers,  105. 
Flight,  length  of  bee's,  19. 

of  queen,  69, 

organs  of,  116. 
Flowers,  finding  of,  177. 
Food,  142. 

for  winter,  344. 

of  larvae,  composition,  115. 

of  larvae,  source.  111. 
Formic  acid  in  honey,  84. 
Foul  brood,  398. 
Foundation  in  sections,  311. 

need  of,  239. 
Frames,  handling,  237. 
Fraternal  relations  of  beekeepers,  3, 

14. 
Fruit-growing,  value  of  bees  in,  6,  7, 

366. 
Fumigation  for  moths,  414. 
Function  of  nectar,  360. 

Galleria  mellonella,  411. 

Gates,  177. 

Gathering      instinct,     development, 

108. 
German  bees,  107,  200. 

hive,  7,  9. 
Gerstung  theory  of  swarming,  79. 
Giant  bees,  193. 

comparison  of  nest,  52. 

comparison  in  deserting  nest,  81. 
Glands  of  head.  111. 
Glazed  sections,  329. 
Gloves,  31. 

Grading  comb-honey,  326. 
Granulated  honey,  marketing,  330. 
Granulation  of  wax,  338. 

prevention,  325. 
Gravenhorst  hive,  7,  9. 
Gravity  strainers,  299. 
Grecian  bees,  196. 
Greek  hive,  6,  8. 


Growth  of  larva,  100, 
Guarding  of  colony,  117. 

Head,  description,  134. 
Hearing,  175. 
Heart,  148. 
Heat,  conservation,  90. 

source,  59,  91. 
Heating  honey,  324. 
Heat  in  winter,  source,  346. 
Hemiptera,    source     of    honey-dew, 

371. 
Hermaphrodite  bees,  190. 
Hershiser  press,  336. 
Hibernation  impossible,  88. 
Hive  and  hive  parts,  26. 

arrangement,  231. 

finding  of,  178. 

for  comb-honey,  306. 

for  extracted-honey,  288. 
Hivers,  automatic,  274. 
Hive  stands,  26. 

tools,  31. 
Hiving  a  swarm,  272. 
Hoarding  for  winter,  88. 
Hoffman  frames,  28. 
Holy  Land  bees,  195. 
Home  market,  development,  332. 
Honey-dew,  insect,  371. 

-dew  in  winter,  356. 

-dew  plant,  370. 

-flow,  influence  on     brood-rearing, 
86. 

-flow  variations,  206. 

-house,  23,  292,  306. 

-plants,  359. 

-pump,  300. 

ripening,  84. 

-stomach,  structure,  113. 

storing,  81. 

uses,  432. 
Hoosier   School   Boy,    bee-house  in, 

9,  10. 
Hopkins   method    of    queen-rearing, 

421. 
House  for  extracting,  292. 
Houses  for  bees,  9,  10. 
Human  concepts  given  to  bees,  35. 
Humidity  in  winter,  345. 
Hunger  swarm,  80. 
Hymenoptera,  3.7. 


Index 


453 


Identification  of  plants  difficult,  360. 

Imbedding  wire  in  foundation,  29. 

Importation  of  wax,  342. 

Improvement  of  stock,  427. 

Inbreeding,  429. 

Incomplete  metamorphosis,  100. 

Increase,  284. 

Indiana,    variations    in     swarming, 

77. 
Individual  service,  319. 
Insect  honey-dew,  371. 
Inside  labor  of  the  hive,  107. 

labor  of  young  bees,  104. 
Inspection  laws,  432. 
Instinct  has  physical  basis,  104. 

limitations  of,  34,  38. 

of  gathering,  84. 

to  swarm,  75. 
Introducing  cages,  426. 
Inversion  of  sugar,  84,  241. 
Irish  hive,  10. 
Isle  of  Wight  disease,  410. 
Italian  bees,  107,  197. 

for  European  foul  brood,  408. 

Labels,  322,  331. 
Langstroth  hive,  8,  26. 
Larval  development,  100. 

diseases,  397. 

food,  source.  111. 
Later  embryonic  development,  98. 
Laws  concerning  beekeeping,  431. 

spraying,  368. 
Leaf  hopper,   source  of  honey-dew, 

371. 
Learning  beekeeping,  224. 
Legal  rights  to  bee  range,  16. 
Legs,  99,  102,  157. 
Lesser  wax-moth,  414. 
Leveling  hive,  239. 
Lifting  honey,  300. 
Light  in  winter  cellar,  363. 
List  of  honey-plants,  372. 
Literature  on  bees,  430. 
"Locality"  and  variation  in  practice, 
34. 

differences,  82,  205. 
Location  for  apiary,  18. 

for  swarm,  274. 
Locomotion,  154. 
Losses  in  winter,  343. 


Mclndoo,  169. 

Mailing  cages,  426. 

Malpighian  tubes,  98,  153. 

Mandibles,  135. 

Manipulation  for  comb-honey,  313. 

of  bees,  object,  234. 
Marketing  bulk  comb-honey,  330. 

comb-honey,  325. 

extracted-honey,  320. 

granulated  honey,  330. 

honey,  320. 

wax,  339. 
Mating  flight,  69. 

nuclei,  425. 

of  queen,  42. 
Mechanical  swarming  devices,  284. 
Mellifera  vs.  mellifica,  37. 
Mellifica,  varieties,  194. 
Memory,  179. 

lost  in  swarming,  74. 
Metabolism,  150. 
Metamorphosis,  100. 
Methods  of  spread  of  diseases,  403. 

of  wintering,  349. 
Microsporidiosus,  410. 
Migratory  beekeeping,  216. 
Miller,  C.  C,  267,  271. 

method  of  queen-rearing,  419. 
Minor  sources  of  nectar,  364. 
Mixing  honeys,  322. 
Moisture  in  winter,  345. 
Motion  picture  of  bees,  72. 
Moults  of  larva,  103. 
Mouth-parts,  138. 

Movement,    basis    for    behavior    in- 
vestigations, 35. 
Moving  bees,  250. 

staples  for,  33. 
Muscular  activity,   source  of    heat, 
91. 

Nassenoff,  172. 
Natural  nest,  46. 
Nectar,  function,  360. 

gathering,  81. 

gathering  instinctive,  184. 

present  loss  of,  4. 

sources,  359. 
Nelson,  94. 
Nervous  system,  162. 
Nest,  arrangement,  50. 


454 


Index 


Net  weight  of  sections,  327. 
Non-essential  manipulations,  251. 
Non-swarming  appliances,  269. 
Noaema  apis,  410. 
Nucleus,  a  part  of  the  cell,  94. 

for  mating  queens,  425. 

defined,  39. 
Nursery  cages,  425. 

OceUi,  168. 

Odor,  American  foul  brood,  400. 

effects  in  uniting,  243. 

European  foul  brood,  402. 

in  entering  hive,  68. 

in  swarm  clustering,  65. 

in  swarming-out,  81. 
Odors  of  colony,  172. 
(Enocytes,  153. 
Olfactory  sense,  169. 
Opening  a  hive,  235. 
Organizations  of  beekeepers,  431. 
Orientation,  244. 
Out-apiaries,  232. 

-apiary  house,  25. 

-door  colonies,  52. 

-door  wintering,  350. 
Outside  work  of  workers,  118. 
Ovaries,  181. 

Overproduction,  fear  of,  5. 
Overstocking,  218. 

Packing  cases,  351. 

in  winter,  350. 
Palestine  hives,  5,  8. 
Paralysis,  410. 
Parent  colony,  69. 
Parthenogenesis,  186. 
Petersen,  114. 
Pharyngeal  glands.  111. 
Philosophy,  bees  as  basis  for,  35. 
Pickled  brood,  402. 
Pipe,  German  beekeeper's,  30. 
Plain  sections,  308. 
Plan  of  body  of  bee,  133. 
Planta,  v.,  115. 
Plant  honey-dew,  370. 
Plateau,  117. 
Play  flights,  105. 
Poetic  conception  of  bees,  35. 
Point  of  view  in  behavior  investiga- 
tions, 35. 


Poison,  160. 

immunity  to,  13. 
Poisonous  honeys,  369. 
Pollen,  cells  for  storage,  50. 

gathering,  85,  123,  365. 

in  larval  food,  115. 

in  winter,  358. 

plants,  359. 

source  of  enzymes,  85. 

substitutes,  263. 
Popular  works  on  bees  often  faulty, 

36. 
Portable  extracting  outfits,  293. 
Porto  Rican  apiary,  19. 
Position  of  supers,  314. 
Post-constructed  queen  cells,  62. 
Power  extractors,  297. 
Pre-constructed  queen  cells,  62. 
Premature  swarms,  74. 
Presses  for  wax,  335. 
Preventive  manipulations,  270. 

measures,  268. 
Professional  beekeepers,  2. 

beekeeping,  advantages,  16. 
Profits  in  beekeeping,  19-21. 
Propolis,  85,  117. 

collection,  126. 

removal,  325. 

used  in  natural  nest,  52. 
Protection  in  spring,  257. 

in  winter,  object,  344. 

of  larva,  100. 

of  nest,  52. 
Proteid  digestion,  147. 
Protoplasm,  94. 
Proventriculus,  113. 
Pump  for  honey,  300. 
Puncturing  of  fruit,  368. 
Pupa,  external  changes,  102. 
Purity  of  comb-honey,  301. 

of  race,  429. 

Queen  and  drone  trap,  32,  273. 
breeders,  417. 
cells,  49,  62. 
cells,  saving  of,  419. 
description,  40. 
-excluder,  277. 
food,  116. 
in  swarming,  63. 
mating  flight,  69.    , 


Index 


455 


Queen-rearing,  417. 

-rearing  conditions,  62,  419. 
Queen's  action  in  swarming,  65. 

classification,  426. 
Questionable  manipulations,  261. 

Races,  192. 

Rearing  of  queens,  417. 

Reaumur,  48. 

Red  clover  bees,  200. 

Regional  differences,  205. 

Regions  of  United  States,  207. 

Remedial  manipulations,  278. 

measures,  272. 
Removal  of  brood,  283. 
Removing  honey  for  extracting,  291. 
Rendering  wax,  334. 
Reports  on  honey  crop,  434. 
Reproductive  processes,  181. 
Requeening,  282,  418. 
Requirements  of  wintering,  344. 
Respiration,  151. 
Restricted  regions,  211. 
Restrictions  in  comb-honey  produc- 
tion, 305. 

of  egg-laying,  281. 
Results  to  be  expected,  19-21. 
Retail  honey  packages,  321. 
Reversible  extractors,  294. 
Rewards  for  adulterated  comb-honey, 

302. 
Ripe  fruit  not  injured  by  bees,  368. 
Ripening  of  honey,  117. 
Robbing,  prevention,  249. 
Roof  apiary,  18,  19. 
Ropiness,  American  foul  brood,  399. 

European  foul  brood,  402. 
Royal  jelly,  source.  111. 
Rudiments  of  organs  in  embryo,  97. 

Sacbrood,  402. 

Sage  region,  210. 

Salivary  glands  of  worker,  111. 

Scale,  American  foul  brood,  399. 

Scent  gland,  65. 

in  entering  hive,  68. 
Schiemenz,  112. 
Schonfeld,  112. 
Scouts  for  swarms,  67. 
Scraping  sections,  325. 
Search  for  good  locations,  360. 


Seat  for  apiary,  31,  32. 
Second  swarms,  71. 
Sections,  evolution  of,  307. 

preparation,  311. 

types,  308. 
Segmentation  of  embryo,  98. 
Selling  honey,  332. 
Semi-arid  region,  210. 
Semi-pupa  stage,  103. 
Sense  organs,  165. 
Settling  wax,  337. 
Sex  determination,  188. 

of  workers,  62. 
Shaking  treatment,  404. 
Shipping  bees,  223. 

cases,  328. 

comb-honey,  329. 
Sight,  166. 
Silk  gland,  origin,  98. 

of  cocoon,  101. 
Site  of  apiary,  228. 
Size  of  apiary,  232. 

of  the  colony,  39. 
Skill,  importance  of,  22. 
Sladen,  172. 
Slaughter  of  drones,  44. 
Sleep  of  bees,  50. 
Slumgum,  336. 
Smell,  169. 
Smoker,  29,  30. 
Snodgrass,  113,  114,  132,  439. 
Social  bees,  192. 
Solar  wax  extractor,  335. 
Sources  of  nectar  and  pollen,  359. 
South-eastern  region,  209. 
Spacing  of  frames,  28. 
Spermatheca,  182. 
Spermatozoa,  origin,  184. 
Spraying,  damage  from,  367. 

laws,  432. 

trees  in  bloom,  366. 
Spreading  the  brood,  262. 
Spring  activities,  55. 

dwindling,  128,  258,  358,  410. 

management,  255. 
Statistics  of  beekeeping,  4. 
Steam-heated  knife,  294. 
Stimulative  feeding,  261. 
Sting,  158. 

Stingless  bees,  comparison  of  nest,  63. 
Sting  of  queen,  42. 


456 


Index 


Stings,  remedies,  236. 
Stomach-mouth,  113. 

of  larva,  100. 
Storage  cells,  47. 

for  comb-honey,  25,  317. 

in  worker  bees,  105. 

tanks,  299. 
Stores  for  winter,  344. 
Strained  honey,  286. 
Straining  honey,  298. 
Structure  of  comb,  47. 
Sugar  digestion,  146. 

syrup  for  food,  240. 
Sun,  exposure  to,  229. 
Super  manipulation,  289,  314. 

for  extracted-honey,  289. 

removal,  316. 

types,  309. 
S\ipplies,  432. 
Surplus,  sources,  359. 
Swamp  sources,  advantages,  363. 
Swarm  activity,  72, 

box,  422. 

catcher,  66. 

control,  78,  265,  313. 

description  of,  63. 
Swarming,  61. 

causes  loss,  265. 

fever,  74. 

-out,  80. 

preparations,  62. 
Swarms,  artificial,  283. 

on  one  support,  66. 
Symbols,  439. 

Symptoms,    American    foul    brood, 
398. 

European  foul  brood,  401. 

sacbrood,  402. 
Syrian  bees,  195. 
System  essential,  253. 

in  extracted-honey,  290. 

Tanks  for  storage,  299. 
Taste,  174. 
Taxonomy,  37. 

Temperature,    effect   on   brood-rear- 
ing, 87. 

in  winter  cellar,  347,  353. 

of  colony,  59,  60. 

responses  in  winter,  89,  90. 

sense,  176. 


Temperature  variation  within  hive, 

61. 
Term  of  life  of  worker,  44. 
Testes,  184. 
Thorax,  139. 

not  typical,  99. 

origin,  99. 
Time  to  handle  bees,  235. 
Tongue,  138. 
Touch,  174. 
Townsend  291. 
Tracheal  system,  152. 
Transferring  colonies,  245. 

larvae,  422. 
Transition  cells,  48. 
Treatment,    European    foul    brood, 
408. 

of  brood  diseases,  403. 
Tropics,  gathering  by  bees  in,  84. 
T-super,  309. 
Types  of  bees  in  colony,  39. 

Unbalanced    condition   of   swarming 

colonies,  280. 
Uncapping,  293. 

cans,  294. 
United     States,     statistics     of    bee- 
keeping in,  4. 
Uniting,  243. 
Uses  of  honey,  432. 
of  wax,  340. 

Van  Deusen  hive  clamp,  33. 
Variation  in  honey-flows,  83. 

in  nectar,  361. 

in  regions,  54. 

in  secretion,  362. 

in  swarming,  266. 

in  value  of  plants,  206. 

of  colonies  in  swarming,  267. 

within  a  region,  212. 
Veil,  30. 
Ventilation  in  winter,  346. 

of  cellar,  353. 
Ventriculus,  112. 

Walking,  157. 

Water  collection,  85,  126. 

need  of,  258. 

source  in  winter,  345. 
Wax  building,  68. 


Index 


457 


Wax-moth,  117,  411. 

presses,  335. 

production,  334,  340. 

source,  108,  109,  110. 
White  clover  region,  207. 
Wholesale    packages    for    extracted- 

honey,  320. 
Wide  frames,  310. 
"Wiley  lie,"  302. 
Wind,  effects,  352. 
Windows  of  honey-house,  24. 
Wings,  154. 

origin,  99,  102. 
Winter  breeding,  87. 

cluster,  88. 


Winter  cluster  in  cells,  50. 

flights,  92. 
Wintering,  343. 

aster  honey  for,  374. 
Wiring  frames,  29. 
Wooden  cell  cups,  422. 
Worker  cell,  46. 

description,  43. 
Women,  beekeeping  for,  15. 

Young  bees,  duties,  107. 
queens  in  swarming,  76. 

Zander,  410. 

Zoological  position  of  bees,  37. 


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